Grand water diversions, 100,000 Buddhist sculptures, and sacred mountains
Part I of Warm Temperate China
I. Map boundaries: 30 to 40 degrees North; 110 to 120 degrees East
II. Country (Provinces and Municipalities): China (Anhui, Beijing Municipality, Chongqing Municipality, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Inner Mongolia, Jiangsu, Liaoning, Shandong, Shanxi, Shaanxi, Tianjin Municipality, and Zhejiang).
III. Overview of the Cultural Landscape, or a History of China in 25 Sites
Because the ecoregions of central China are human-dominated, it appears appropriate to describe the cultural history from an ecological standpoint. It is evident that there are profound connections between the natural and cultural landscapes of central China. The tour begins with the flood-prone Yellow River (Huang) as it exits the mountains, where catastrophic natural events influenced patterns of population movement at Sanyangzhuang. It continues with religious sites such as Longmen, where limestone caves provided a landscape for art achievement, and includes the limestone mountains, whose pinnacles and precipitous topography provided sacred cultural landscapes. It ends with the tombs of emperors, which are designed to indicate harmony with the natural landscape. There are 25 sites which I have chosen to provide a whirlwind orientation tour. Additional sites are listed in the World Heritage listing and other site listings which follow.
Site 1. Erlitou, Henan. Around the middle of the second millennium BCE, Chinese civilization is believed to have been founded in the fertile agricultural plains of the middle Yellow River area of Henan. China’s founding dynasty is believed to be the Xia dynasty. The archaeological site of Erlitou, on the Luo River between Luoyang and Zhengzhou, may have been its capital. Erlitou had a central walled palace and street network. A section of road with wagon tracks provides evidence for wheeled vehicles (Lawler 2009). Even earlier settlements have been found in Liangzhu, Zhejiang, just to the south of the map area.
While current archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest millet and rice harvest took place to the west and south of the map area, it was in central China, in the lower Yellow and Yangtze River valleys, that domestication of these grains led to a flourishing civilization. The earliest rice and millet seeds did not remain attached to the stem. They drop as soon as they are mature. Domestication was a process of changing the predominant forms of these plants to ones whose seeds remained and could be harvested and stored by farmers. The domestication process is believed to have been gradual, with cross-fertilization among cultivated and wild varieties taking place in many localities. Eventually, the domesticated plants become totally dependent upon the farmer for reproduction. The domestication process continues today with modern plant breeding (Jones and Liu 2009).
Site 2. Yin, Henan. Following the Xia period represented by Erlitou, the Shang Dynasty sites of Zhengzhou (Erligang section) and Yin are also located in modern-day Henan. Yin is considered the first capital of early China, from 1300 to 1406 BCE. The World Heritage-listed Bronze Age site has royal tombs and palaces. Oracle bones discovered at Yin provide evidence of a well-developed writing system. More than 10,000 pieces of inscribed oracle bones have been recovered (Nelson 1996a). Another Shan settlement was at Taosi in Shanxi. The small walled village contained an astronomical observatory (Xu and He 2010).
Site 3. The Grand Canal, Beijing Municipality, Hebei, Jiangsu, Shandong, and Tianjin Municipality. Started in 486 BCE in Jiangsu province and completed by 610 CE, the 1,115-mile canal had 24 locks. In the 1280s, the canal was shortened by construction of a section across the foothills of the mountains in Shandong. It was built to move goods from the south to the north. Sections are still navigable, mostly in the southern portion in Jiangsu and Zhejiang. However, the canal north of the Yangtze will live on because, although it is no longer navigable, it is being upgraded to serve as the eastern route of the South-North Water Transfer Project (Lague 2007; World Heritage Tentative Lists 2011). The canal is being widened and deepened, and water will be pumped under the Yellow River in a tunnel (Stone and Jia 2006).
Sites 4 and 5. Great Wall (Hebei, Shanxi, and Shaanxi) and Qufu (Shandong). The first centralized monarchy was the Qin dynasty. It was in this period (221 to 207 BCE) that the Great Wall, another World Heritage site, was begun in an attempt to secure the northern border. The subsequent Western Han dynasty established Confucianism as the favored philosophy and opened up the Silk Route to the Mediterranean Sea. The house of Confucius, located at Qufu in Shandong, is a World Heritage site.
Site 6. Sanyangzhuang, Henan. During floods, the Yellow River channel downstream of Zhengzhou, capital of Henan, has relocated at various times in China’s history. From 1324 to 1853, for example, the river actually entered the Yellow Sea in Jingsu around 34 degrees North. Currently, the present-day delta is about 38 degrees North, and in the past it has entered as far north as 39 degrees, near present-day Tianjin. Historically, the river has carried massive quantities of sand and silt eroded from the loess plateau to the north and west. As these sediments fall out, they cause much braiding of the river channel, which leads to multiple channels and frequent course changes (Kidder 2010). About 10 or 11 BCE, a massive and catastrophic flood buried the village of Sanyangzhuang, now located in northeastern Henan. Fields, plows, pottery, and tile-roofed homes were buried under 70 cm of silt. The area did not recover until the 7th Century CE (Lawler 2010). The village site was discovered by modern archaeologists in 2003, and the sediments on-site preserve a record of 12,000 years of Yellow River and Chinese history. At the village site, roof tiles are imprinted with characters reading “long life,” Cart tracks and human footprints lead out of town, suggesting a quick exodus and possessions were left frozen in time. Copper coins, hoofprints, and impressions of mulberry leaves have been found (Watts 2011). The flood of 11 BCE was so extensive that it may have caused population relocation to the south. In fact, wetter climatic conditions, improved technology leading to more intensive farming and subsequent erosion, and deforestation may have helped to cause political uncertainties at the time (Kidder 2010).
Site 7. Mancheng, Hebei. The tombs of Han dynasty rulers are representative of the luxury of the period, with jade shrouds covering the buried king and his princess (Segraves 1996). The Han dynasty came to an end by 220 CE.
Site 8. Longmen Grottoes, Henan. The carved Buddhist grottoes at Longmen, a World Heritage site, are representative of the Tang dynasty. The apogee of Chinese stone carving and the largest collection of Chinese art from the Wei and Tang Dynasties, Longmen Grottoes is on the Yi River south of Luoyang. The caves west of the river tend to be from the Wei and those east of the river tend to be from the Tang Dynasty. There are 2,345 grottoes and 100,000 sculptures. The carvings are all dedicated to Buddhism and took place from 493 to 1127. Preserved for 1500 years, some carvings were removed in the early 20th century and sold to Western art collectors. The Offering Procession of the Empress as Donor with Her Court, carved about 522 CE, is in the collection of the Nelson-Atkins Museum in Kansas City.
Site 9. Zhaozhou Bridge (Anji Bridge), Hebei. The oldest standing bridge in China, built 1400 years ago and completed in 605 CE, is still in use and is a civil engineering landmark. It is the world's oldest open-spandrel arch bridge. There are smaller arches at each end of the bridge that transmit the load of the deck down to the main arch. The open spandrels allow some water to flow over the main arch when the river floods.
Site 10. Hongcun, Anhui. In 960 CE, the Song dynasty was established, and its capital was Kaifeng, Henan. Military defeats in 1126 forced the Song to move south to Zhejiang, and all of China was conquered in 1278 by the Mongols Ghenghis Khan and his grandson Kublai Khan. Hongcun village, dating to 1131 CE, is a World Heritage site representative of the Song dynasty period.
Sites 11 to 16, Sacred Mountains: Tai (Shandong), Song (Henan), Hua (Shaanxi), North Heng (Shanxi), Wutai (Shanxi), and Jiuhua (Anhui)
The Chinese culture, through Taoist and Buddhist beliefs, attempts to blend temples, shrines, and even tombs with the natural landscape, which transitions from dense evergreen forested mountains in the south to drier grasslands in the northwest of this map area. Mountain peaks were transformed into elaborate cultural landscapes and places to visit and cherish, and formed the backdrop for tombs of emperors. Each sacred mountain is a cultural and natural landscape. The five sacred Taoist mountains are Tai, Song, Hua, North Heng, and South Heng (located to the south of the map area). The four sacred Buddhist mountains are Wutai, Jiuhua, Emei, and Putuo. Emei and Putuo are located to the west and south of the map area.
Site 17, Wudang Mountain, Hubei. Taoist buildings date to the 7th century, and the Purple Heaven Palace dates to 1119. Wudang is the birthplace of the martial art tai chi.
Site 18, Huang Mountain, Anhui, has inspired Chinese art and literature since the 700s. A school of Chinese landscape painting is named after the mountain; many of these paintings date from the 16th century.
Sites 19, 20, and 21. Forbidden City, Summer Palace, and Temple of Heaven, Beijing Municipality. These sites represent the later Chinese dynasties from 1416 to 1911 and indicate supreme power as well as the emperor’s mandate to preserve harmony and hierarchy. The Forbidden City is the most grand and best-preserved palace complex in the world, covering 183 acres and surrounded by a moat and wall. The Summer Palace is a 726-acre royal park and garden. The Temple of Heaven is a sacrificial altar symbolizing the relationship between earth and heaven.
Sites 22, 23, and 24. Xianling (Hubei), Western Qing Tombs (Hebei), and Zhong Mountain (Jiangsu). Tombs are sacred cultural landscapes that reflect the cultural and artistic traditions that dominated this part of the world for 500 years. The ideal tomb site attempted to achieve harmony with the natural landscape. There must be a mountain to the north, lower elevation to the south, and hills to the east and west. The Xianling tomb in Hubei and the Zhong Mountain tombs in Nanjing are from the Ming Dynasty (1368 to 1644). The Qing Dynasty (1644 to 1912) was the last dynasty; these tombs are located in Hebei southwest of Beijing and consist of 14 tombs and two building complexes in a pine forest.
Site 25, Ping Yao, Shanxi, is a well-preserved traditional walled Chinese city and represents the Qing dynasty as it was a major banking center. There are 4,000 preserved Ming- and Qing-dynasty houses within the city walls. The city wall itself was built to resemble a tortoise.
IV. Terrestrial Ecoregions
Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forests of the Paleoarctic Biome
PA 101. Guizhou Plateau broadleaf and mixed forests. This cool, cloudy realm of limestone pinnacles is dominated by plants in the oak, laurel, and tea families. Other common plants include hemlock, maple, rhododendron, Prunus and fir. Animals include macaques, monkeys, tigers, Sika deer, and leopards. Found in Chongqing Municipality, Hubei, and Hunan on the map.
PA 411. Central China loess plateau mixed forest. This ecoregion developed on wind-blown loess 200 m thick and is a transition from the deciduous temperate forests to the steppes and deserts to the north and west. The forest is a mixed broadleaf deciduous forest of oak, birch, maple, and linden. Found in Beijing Municipality, Hebei, Henan, Shanxi, and Shaanxi in the map area.
PA 415. Changjiang Plain evergreen forests. The broad Yangtze or Chang Jiang (Long River) valley downstream of the Three Gorges originally contained native evergreen oak and laurel forests. The Yangtze River dolphin is found in Poyang Lake, along with Chinese alligator. Found in Anhui, Henan, Hubei, Jiangsu, and Zhejiang within the map area.
PA 417. Daba Mountains evergreen forests. Mixed evergreen oaks and tree mints; pines. Shennongjia in western Hubei has old growth forests. It is known for the rare Davidia tree. Found in Chongqing Municipality, Hubei, and Shaanxi in the map area.
PA 424. Huang He Plain mixed forests. This mostly deciduous forest area is characterized by oak, elm, pistachio, and pines. Found in Anhui, Beijing Municipality, Hebei, Henan, Jiangsu, Shandong, Shanxi, Shaanxi, and Tianjin Municipality in the map area.
PA 430. Northeast China Plain deciduous forests. Deciduous forests found here are a mixture of hardwoods and conifers, including oaks,maples, elm, ash, and pine. Found in Liaoning in the northeastern corner of the map area.
PA 434. Qin Ling Mountains deciduous forests. Found in Henan, Hubei, and Shaanxi in the map area. A biologically rich deciduous forest of oak, elm, walnut, maple, and pines. To the west of the map area are panda preserves.
Temperate Grasslands, Savannas, and Shrublands
PA 813. Mongolian-Manchurian grassland. Flat to rolling grasslands provide habitat for wild ungulates and are used for sheep and goat grazing. Found in Hebei, Inner Mongolia and Shanxi in the map area
Flooded Grasslands and Savannas
PA 902. Bohai Sea saline meadow. Made of sediments in the Yellow and Luan River Deltas, these areas are dominated by goosefoot and grasses. They are mostly used for rice and aquaculture, with natural areas providing habitat for Saunders gull and red-crowned crane. Found in Hebei, Shandong, and Tianjin Municipality in the map area.
PA 908. Yellow Sea saline meadow. The delta of the Huai River consists of saline meadows dominated by goosefoot and grasslands. About 40 percent of the wild population of red-crowned crane winters here. Some areas are used for shrimp aquaculture. Found in Jiangsu in the map area.
Montane Grasslands and Shrublands
PA 1013, Ordos Plateau Steppe. Scrub vegetation with some desertification from heavy grazing. Found in Inner Mongolia, Shanxi, and Shaanxi in the map area.
V. Freshwater Ecoregions of the World
Northern Asia Region, Temperate Floodplain Rivers and Wetlands
635. Huang He Great Bend. Includes Inner Mongolia province on map.
636. Lower Huang He. Includes Beijing and Tianjin municipalities and Hebei, Henan, Shandong, Shaanxi, and Shanxi provinces on map.
Southern Asia Region, Temperate Floodplain Rivers and Wetlands
766. Lower Yangtze. The Yangtze and tributaries upriver to Three Gorges, including Huai River, Weishan Lake, and Dan River drainages. Includes Anhui, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, and provinces on map.
Southern Asia Region, Temperate Upland Rivers
765. Middle Yangtze. Includes Three Gorges area of Chongqing Municipality and western Hubei province on map.
VI. Marine Ecoregions of the World
Temperate Northern Pacific Realm, Cold Temperate Northwest Pacific Province.
50. Yellow Sea. Includes Yellow Sea and Bo Gulf on map.
VII. World Heritage Sites
Dengfeng (Mount Songshang), Henan. The central Taoist sacred mountain of China is associated with the concept of the center of heaven and earth. It was believed that this mountains was the only place where astronomical observations were accurate. The site consists of eight units containing temples, pagodas, an academy, and an observatory. Cypress trees on the site are believed to be 4500 years old. The other four sacred mountains are Hua (shown on map), North Heng (shown on map), South Heng (not in map area), and Tai (shown on map, also a World Heritage Site). Ecoregion PA424.
Great Wall, Hebei, Shanxi, and Shaanxi. The world’s largest military structure was built from 220 BC to 1600 AD and served a single strategic purpose for 2,000 years. Ecoregions 411, 813, and 1013.
Hongcun Village, Anhui (Part of Ancient Villages in Southern Anhui site). Founded in 1131, this is an exceptionally well-preserved feudal village dating to the Tang and Song dynasties. The village is arranged in the shape of an ox and has a crescent-shaped moon pond. Northwest are other villages of similar character, including Tachuan, noted for fall foliage. Northeast of Honcun is the Mukeng bamboo forest, offering hiking trails. Ecoregion PA 415.
Huang (Yellow) Mountain, Anhui. Renowned for its magnificent scenery, Huang Mountain inspired art and literature throughout Chinese history. Huangshan culture is a school of Chinese landscape painting. Scenery includes rocky peaks, forests of stone pillars, and waterfalls, all in a densely forested landscape of evergreen moist forest below 1,100 m and deciduous forest from 1100 to 1800 m. Huang is also in the world network of geoparks for its natural landscape. Ecoregion 415.
Imperial Palaces of the Ming and Qing Dynasties, Beijing Municipality. Capital of China for 3,000 years, the Forbidden City or Palace Museum in the center of Beijing was the seat of supreme power from 1416 to 1911.The red walls and yellow roofs in this 74-acre area are a reflection of the emperor’s mandate to preserve harmony and hierarchy. Ecoregion PA411.
Imperial Tombs, Beijing Municipality, Hebei, Hubei, and Jiangsu. The world heritage unit is composed of 14 sites, eight of which are in the map area. These tombs are sacred cultural landscapes, a testimony to a cultural and architectural tradition that for 500 years dominated eastern Asia. The imposing mausolea were an affirmation of authority. Ming tombs attempted to achieve a harmony with a natural site, consistent with principles of Confucianism and Taoism. The desired location offered a mountain to the north, a lower elevation landscape to the south, and must be framed to the east and west by hills. One waterway needs to be featured. Buildings are constructed along a main access raod several km in length and secondary ways to lead to other mausolea.
Unit 1, Xianling Tomb, Hubei, a Ming tomb of Xing, who was declared emperor posthumously in 1519. Ecoregion PA 417.
Unit 3, Western Qing Tombs, Hebei. There are 14 imperial tombs and two building complexes in centuries-old pine forests. Ecoregion PA411.
Units 5 through 11, Nanjing, Jiangsu. These Ming Dynasty tombs are on the south side of Zhong Mountain, Nanjing. The site was chosen to reflect geomantic concepts of Confucianism and Taoism, with huge culverts and a sewer system to convey an outer imperial river and an inner river. The sacred way is lined with 34 statues. Ecoregion PA 415.
Longmen Grottoes, Henan. The apogee of Chinese stone carving and the largest collection of Chinese art from the Wei and Tang Dynasties, Longmen Grottoes is on the Yi River south of Luoyang. The caves west of the river tend to be from the Wei and those east of the river tend to be from the Tang Dynasty. There are 2,345 grottoes and 100,000 sculptures. The carvings are all dedicated to Buddhism and took place from 493 to 1127. Preserved for 1500 years, some carvings were removed in the early 20th century and sold to Western art collectors. The Offering Procession of the Empress as Donor with Her Court, carved about 522 CE, is in the collection of the Nelson-Atkins Museum in Kansas City. Ecoregion PA 424.
Ping Yao, Shanxi. A well-preserved traditional walled Chinese city, with buildings dating to the 14th century. Nearby Shuanglin Temple dates to 1571. Ping Yao was China’s major banking center in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Ecoregion PA 411.
Qufu, Shandong. The family mansion of Confucius, renowned philosopher, politician and educator who lived from 551 to 479 BCE, founder of an ideology that pre-eminent in China for 2,000 years. The complex contains more than 100 buildings maintained for the last 2,000 years. The Confucius Forest, a burial ground for Confucius and his descendents, is a pine and cypress forest covering 200 ha. Ecoregion PA 424.
Summer Palace, Beijing Municipality. Built in 1750, this is the masterpiece Chinese landscape garden and is a symbol of Chinese civilization. The natural landscape is combined with pavilions, halls, palaces and temples. Ecoregion PA 411.
Tai Mountain (East Great Mountain), Shandong. Considered a birthplace of Chinese civilization, ancient temples built over 2,000 years and dense forests dot this mountain cultural landscape. One of the five Taoist mountains, the eastern mountain is associated with the rising sun, birth, and renewal. The central hiking route is an outdoor museum of calligraphic art. The other Taoist mountains are Hua, Shaanxi (shown on map), North Heng, Shanxi (shown on map), South Heng, Hunan (not shown on map), and Song, Henan (shown on map). Tai Mountain is also in the world network of geoparks for its early Precambrian trilobite fossils. Ecoregion PA 424.
Temple of Heaven, Beijing Municipality. Dating from 1420, this imperial sacrificial altar is located amidst gardens and pine woods. Considered a masterpiece of art and design, it symbolizes the relationship between earth and heaven at the heart of Chinese cosmogony. Ecoregion PA 411.
Wudang Mountains Ancient Building Complex, Hubei. Taoist buildings date to the 7th Century. The Golden Shrine, atop Sky Pillar Peak, is built of bronze and dates to 1307. Purple Heaven Palace, built 1119 to 1126 is the largest and best preserved building complex. The mountain is considered the birthplace of the martial art tai chi. Ecoregion PA417.
Wutai Mountains Cultural Landscape, Shanxi. One of the four sacred Buddhist mountains and home to Manjusri, Bodhisattva of Wisdom, Wutai is home to 41 monasteries, dating to the first century CE. Foguang Temple is the highest surviving timber building of the Tang Dynasty, with life-sized clay sculptures. Shuxiang Temple contains 500 statues representing Buddhist stories in three-dimensional pictures of mountains and water. There are five open treeless peaks, giving the mountain the nickname of five terrace mountain. The other three sacred mountains are Emei in Sichuan (not shown on map), Putuo in Zhejiang (not shown on map), and Jiuhua in Anhui (shown on map). Ecoregion PA 411.
Yin Ruins, Henan. The ancient capital of the Shang Dynasty, 1300 to 1406 BCE. The Bronze Age site has royal tombs and palaces from the earliest capital of China. Ecoregion PA 411.
Yungang Grottoes, Shanxi. Considered a masterpiece of Chinese Buddhist cave art, this Fifth Century BCE site consists of 252 grottoes and 51,000 statues. Ecoregion PA813
Zhoukoudian, Beijing Municipality. The fossils of Peking Man, now known as Homo erectus, were found in 1929 at this site 50 km southwest of Beijing. The cave-riddled hills yielded 200 bones before 1937, in strata that are 680,000 to 780,000 years old (Stone 2009). There is some evidence that bones were burned, although it is disputed whether the inhabitants were intentionally using fire (Wu 1999). The fossils and artifacts such as rudimentary tools vanished following the Japanese invasion in 1937. Ecoregions 411 and 424.
VIII. Other points of interest
Cangyan Mountain (Green Crag Mountain), Hebei. The Hanging Palace, perched on a cliff, is located here in a forest of cypress and blue sandalwood. Ecoregion PA411.
Dangjiacun, Shaanxi. A 14th century village with 125 courtyard houses and a Confucian pagoda. Ecoregion PA411.
Erlitou, Henan. An archaeological site in the Yellow River floodplain that may be representative of China’s founding dynasty, the Xia dynasty, dating to 2000 BCE. It contains the earliest known bronze vessels (Nelson 1996b). Ecoregion PA424.
Foguang Temple, Shanxi. Wooden buildings date to 857 CE. Ecoregion PA 411.
Guoyu, Shanxi. This still-inhabited Ming dynasty settlement is near Haihui Buddhist temple and Chin’s castle, home of the author of a Chinese dictionary in the 17th century. Ecoregions PA 411 and PA424
Hua Mountain (West Great Mountain), Shaanxi. One of five Taoist sacred mountains, known for precipitous terrain. Ecoregion 424.
Heng Mountain (North Great Mountain), Shanxi. One of five Taoist sacred mountains, it is actually known for its hanging Buddhist monastery. Long support stilts make for rickety catwalks and corridors. Ecoregion PA 411.
Jiahu, Henan. A sixth to seventh millennium BCE archaeological site which contains controversial evidence of Chinese writing on tortoise shells. There is also evidence of flutes (Lawler 2003). Ecoregion PA415.
Jietai Temple, Beijing Municipality. Located west of Beijing, this temple dates to 622 CE and is dotted with ancient pines up to 1300 years in age. Ecoregion PA411.
Jinci Temple, Shanxi. Dating to 984, the Hall of the Sacred Mother contains eight dragons and 42 Song-Dynasty clay maidservants. The Zhou cypress has grown at a 30 degree angle for the last 900 years. Ecoregion PA 411.
Jiuhua, Anhui. One of four sacred Buddhist mountains, it is dedicated to Ksitigarbha, Bodhisattva of beings in hell realms. Ecoregion PA 415.
Lijia Mountain, Shanxi. Cave houses to nine stories are in a 550-year-old village near the Yellow River. Ecoregion PA 411.
Mancheng, Hubei. The second century BCE tombs from the Han Dynasty of Liu Sheng and Dou Wan are located in cave complexes in a hillside. Jade shrouds cover the king and his princess (Seagraves 1996). Ecoregion PA411.
Mizhi, Shaanxi. The Li Zicheng Palace, built in 1643, for the shepherd who led a peasant rebellion and became emperor. Ecoregion PA1013.
Mogan Mountain, Zhejiang. A resort famous for hiking to forested views and bamboo and grand villa architecture. Ecoregion PA 424.
Nanchan Temple, Shanxi. Wooden buildings date to 782 CE. Ecoregion PA 411.
Qiao, Shanxi. This Qing-dynasty merchant’s residence contains six courtyards and 300 rooms. Ecoregion PA 411.
Qixia Temple and Thousand Buddha Cliff, Jiangsu. Statues carved into this cliff date to the Qi Dynasty. Ecoregion PA424.
Sanyangzhuang, Henan. An archaeological site in northeast Henan considered to be China’s Pompeii because the village was evacuated quickly in response to an onrushing flood, leaving a snapshot of a village and all its belongings in 11 BCE. Ecoregion PA 424.
Tanzhe Temple, Beijing Municipality. Located west of Beijing, this third century temple is known for ancient cypress and pine trees. Ecoregion PA 411.
Taosi, Shanxi. An archaeological site considered to be a founding site of Chinese civilization in the second millennium BCE. Ecoregion PA 411.
Wang Family Courtyard, Shanxi. This Qing dynasty residence contains cave dwellings. Ecoregion PA 411.
Wanxian Mountains Scenic Area and Guoliangcun, Henan. This high-altitude stone hamlet has precipitous dropoffs and an artists colony. Ecoregion PA 411.
White Horse Temple, east of Luoyang, Henan. The Buddhist monastery is believed to the first erected in China, in the first century CE. Ecoregion PA424.
Xiongjia Zhong, Hubei. This site contains 2300-year-old tombs with China’s largest collection of jade. The skeletal remains of two horses pulling a chariot have been unearthed. Ecoregion PA424.
Yangzhou, Jiangsu. The Slender West Lake Park was a vacation spot ffor emperors. Boat rides on the Grand Canal are offered here. Ecoregion PA 424.
Yingxian, Shanxi. This site in northern Shanxi is the home of the five-story Muta tower, the world’s oldest and tallest wooden pagoda. It houses Buddhist carvings. Ecoregion PA 411.
Yuci, Shanxi. This ancient city dating to 1362 contains 400 well-preserved rooms. Ecoregion PA 411.
Yujiacun, Hebei. This Chinese clan village is known as the stone village because the architecture is carved from stones. Ecoregion PA 411.
Zhangbi, Shanxi. The 1400-year-old network of defense tunnels dates to the Sui Dynasty. Ecoregion PA 411.
Zhaozhou Bridge (Anji Bridge), Hebei. The world’s first segmental arch bridge, built 1400 years ago, is still in use and is a civil engineering landmark. Ecoregion PA 411.
Zhujiayu, Shandong. This village dates to 1700 BCE and is known for its ancestral temples. Ecoregion PA424.
Zijin (Purple-Gold) Mountain, Nanjing Municipality, Jiangsu. This heavily forested area contains tombs, the Linggu Temple, and a botanical garden. Ecoregion PA424.
IX. References
Abell, Robin and 27 others. 2008. Freshwater Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Biogeographic Units for Freshwater Biodiversity Conservation. Bioscience 58:403-414.
American Society of Civil Engineers, History and Heritage of Civil Engineering, Landmark Projects. http://live.asce.org/hh/index.mxml?lid=142&versionChecked=true
Brown, Jackum, Kieran Fogarty and Jo Archer. 2007. Asia. In Emma Beare, ed. 2006. 501 Must-Visit Natural Wonders. Bounty Books (Palawan).
BirdLife International. 2011. BirdLife’s Online World Bird Database. Accessed January 14, 2010, at http://www.birdlife.org/
Hao Xin. 2007. Pollution Slows China’s Canal Project. Science 317:1846.
Harper, Damian et al. 2011. China. Lonely Planet.
Jones, Martin K. and Xinyi Liu. 2009. Origins of Agriculture in East Asia. Science 324:730-731.
Kidder, Tristam R. 2010. Geoarchaeology at Sanyangzhuang: A Preliminary Report on the 2009 Field Season. Submitted to Henan Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, Zhengzhou. Publication of Geoarchaeology Lab, Washington University in St. Louis. http://www.artsci.wustl.edu/~anthro/archy/projchina.html
Lague, David. 2007. On an Ancient Canal, Grunge Gives Way to Grandeur. New York Times, July 24.
Lawler, Andrew. 2010. Uncovering a Rural Chinese Pompeii. Science 328:566.
Lawler, Andrew. 2009. Beyond the Yellow River: How China Became China. Science 325:930-935.
Lawler, Andrew. 2009. Founding Dynasty or Myth? Science 325:934.
Lawler, Andrew. 2003. Tortoise Pace for the Evolution of Chinese Writing? Science 300:723.
Nelson, Sarah Milledge. 1996a. Shang Civilization. Pages 140-141 in Fagan, Brian M. The Oxford Companion to Archaeology. Oxford University Press.
Nelson, Sarah Milledge. 1996b. Early Civilizations of China. Pages 137 to 140 in Fagan, Brian M. The Oxford Companion to Archaeology. Oxford University Press.
Olson, David M., et al., 2001. Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Life on Earth. BioScience 51:933-938.
Spalding, Mark D. and 14 others. 2007. Marine Ecoregions of the World: A Bioregionalization of Coastal and Shelf Areas. Bioscience 57:573-583.
Segraves, Julie M. 1996. Han Empire. Pages 143-144 in Brian M. Fagan. The Oxford Companion to Archaeology. Oxford University Press.
Stone, Richard. 2009. Still Seeking Peking Man. Science 325:22-23.
Stone, Richard and Hawk Jia. 2006. Going Against the Flow. Science 313:1034-1037.
Walder, Rebecca, Jackum Brown and David Brown. Asia. In Emma Beare, ed. 2006. 501 Must-Visit Destinations. Bounty Books.
Watts, Judy H. 2011. Beneath the Silt: Combing for Clues to China’s Silk Road. Washington Magazine (Washington University in St. Louis) 81(3):12-17 (June).
World Heritage List. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list (accessed 11/6/10) and World Heritage Tentative Lists (http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5318/).
Wu, Xinzhi. 1999. Investigating the Possible Use of Fire at Zhoukoudian, China. Science 283:299a.
UNESCO-MAB Biosphere Reserve Directory. http://www.unesco.org/mabdb/br/brdir/directory/database.asp (accessed 11/6/10).
Xu Fengxian and He Nu. 2010. Taosi Observatory, China, p. 86. In Clive Ruggles and Michel Cotte. Heritage Sites of Astronomy and Archaeoastronomy in the Context of the UNESCO World Heritage Convention: A Thematic Study. International Council on Monuments and Sites and International Astronomical Union, Paris. Available at http://www.astronomicalheritage.org/.
