enviroramble

Coastal Sage, Chaparral and Nearby Mountains, Part 2

2012-02-01T23:04:00.003-05:00

Oak woodlands where condors soar, the nation’s rarest pine tree, and the Mountains to Sea Trail

This section describes the national systems of public lands and notable private lands which protect natural landscapes in the Mediterranean climate ecoregions of western North America. The areas listed are between 115 and 120 degrees West and 31 and 40 degrees north. Other Mediterranean climate areas exist to the west. The categories listed are National Forest System, National Landscape Conservation System, National Marine Sanctuaries, National Natural Landmarks, National Park System, Federal Recreation Lakes, National Scenic Trails, National Wild and Scenic River System, Federal Wilderness Areas, and National Wildlife Refuge System. Some of these categories overlap. For example, wilderness areas exist on national forests, national parks, national wildlife refuges, and elsewhere in the national system of public lands. National wild and scenic rivers also exist in forests, parks, and other public lands. These lands differ in the amount of public access allowed, from none to extensive, the types and amount of outdoor recreation activities allowed, and in water and vegetation management. Over time, the management philosophies of these different categories of lands have come closer together as the recognition of the need to manage lands in a coordinated manner increases. The section concludes with information on state and local sites and private land conservation efforts. The list of federal, state, local, and private sites is selective and no effort is made to identify all such sites. Designation of Important Bird Areas (IBAs) is a private effort coordinated by BirdLife International internationally and the National Audubon Society and American Bird Conservancy in the U.S. Where an area is listed as an IBA, that is noted in the description.

I. National Forest (NF) System

The National Forest System includes areas that would be considered managed forests, as well as numerous special areas that have been designated by Congressional or administrative action.

Angeles NF, California (site 6). This 700,000-acre area adjacent to Los Angeles is in two units and includes the San Gabriel Mountains. Vegetation ranges from chaparral to pines and fir. The Palomar, Volcan, Hot Springs, Cuyamaca, and Laguna Mountains comprise the San Diego Montane Forests IBA of Audubon. Major recreation areas include 10,000-foot Mount Baldy, Big Pines, Bouquet Canyon, Chilao (along the Angeles Crest Highway), Grassy Hollow, Crystal Lake, Mount Baden-Powell, Mount Wilson, Pyramid Lake, and Gabrielino National Recreation Trail, and High Desert NRT. Wilderness areas include Cucamonga, Magic Mountain, Pleasant View Ridge, San Gabriel, and Sheep Mountain. The San Dimas Experimental Forest and Biosphere Reserve is to the south of Sheep Mountain Wilderness. Ecoregion NA1203.

Cleveland NF, California (site 7). This NF is in four units east of San Diego and southeast of Los Angeles. Major recreation areas and points of interest include Laguna Mountain along the Sunrise Scenic Byway north of I-8, Ortega Highway between Lake Elsinore and San Juan Capistrano, Palomar Observatory, and San Diego River Canyon. The northern unit is part of the southern Orange County IBA for San Diego cactus wren and California gnatcatcher. Laguna Mountain is a high plateau with meadows and unusual trees, including Jeffrey pine, California black oak, Coulter pine, and Palmer’s ceanothus. The San Luis Rey River below Lake Henshaw is an IBA for nesting southwestern willow flycatcher. Includes Agua Tibia, Hauser, Pine Creek, and San Mateo Canyon Wilderness areas. Ecoregion NA1201.

Los Padres NF, California (site 8). The mountains overlooking the Pacific Ocean are comprised of wilderness areas, including Chumash, Matilija, San Rafael, Sespe, and Dick Smith Wilderness areas in the map area. The forest also supports condor sanctuaries at Sisquoc in the San Rafael and Sespe Wilderness. The Jacinto Reyes scenic byway bisects the forest. The Upper Santa Ynez River is an IBA for Bell’s vireo, willow flycatcher, and spotted owl. Ecoregion NA1203.

North Mountain Experimental Area, California (site 9). A chaparral area south of Banning used for research on fire ecology. Ecoregion NA1203.

San Bernardino NF, California (site 10). The Rim of the World and Palms to Pines scenic byways provide access to the San Bernardino and San Jacinto Mountain ranges. Ecoregions NA1201, 1203, and 1310. The San Jacinto wilderness (NA 1203) is shared with the Santa Rosa and San Jacinto National Monument. The upper Santa Ana River is an IBA for the black swift. Bautista Creek Wild and Scenic River (1203) is an IBA and important migratory bird corridor. Baldwin Lake (1203) is a large ephemeral lake surrounded by Great Basin sage scrub and yellow pine woodland and is an IBA for eared grebe, shorebirds, and raptors. The James San Jacinto Mountains Reserve (1203) on route 243 is operated by the University of California as part of its Natural Reserve System.

San Joaquin Experimental Range, California. See description under Biosphere Reserves.

Sequoia NF, California (site 11). Includes the southernmost Sierra Nevada mountains where they grade into the Tehachapi Mountains. The forest includes the Giant Sequoia NM and Golden Trout, Domeland, Jennie Lake, Kiavah, Monarch, and South Sierra wildernesses (see). The Kern Plateau is a high-elevation area, while the Upper Kern River above Lake Isabella and the Lower Kern below Lake Isabella are whitewater recreational rivers. Ecoregions NA527, 1202, and 1203.

II. National Landscape Conservation System

The NLCS includes the areas below as well as wilderness and wilderness study areas. Wilderness areas are in a separate list below; a list of WSAs is not provided.

California Coastal National Monument (site 12). Rocks, pinnacles, and reefs within 14 miles of the shoreline are included in this area, which extends the length of the state. Major groupings of rocks are located near San Diego, the Palos Verdes Peninsula at Los Angeles, Malibu, San Clemente Island, San Nicholas Island, and Santa Catalina Island. Palos Verdes Estates and the City of Ranch Palos Verdes have numerous underwater ridges, rocks, and reefs which are included in the monument. There are also numerous tidepools. Ecoregion NA1201 and marine ecoregion 59.

Carrizo Plain National Monument, California (site 13). The area includes Soda Lake and two large valleys between two mountain ranges. This is an IBA for raptors. Wintering sandhill cranes, SAsn Joaquin kit fox, and the giant kangaroo rat are also found here. Ecoregion NA1202.

Santa Rosa and San Jacinto National Monument, California (site 14). With elevations ranging from sea level to 10,000 feet, a diversity of natural landscapes are present, ranging from the desert to pinyon-juniper to limber and lodgepole pine. The San Jacinto Mountains rise almost 10,000 feet in seven horizontal miles. The mountains overlook the rapidly urbanizing Coachella Valley. Streams and seeps support palm oases. The San Jacinto Mountains are the northern end of the Peninsular Range, which extends south the length of Baja California. Includes Agua Caliente Indian Reservation, Hidden Palms Ecological Reserve, Boyd, Phillip J., Deep Canyon Research Center (UC Riverside), Carrizo Canyon Ecological Reserve, the Living Desert (zoo and botanical garden), Magnesia Spring Ecological Reserve, Mount San Jacinto State Park and Wilderness, Palm Canyon Creek National Wild and Scenic River, Palm Springs Aerial Tramway, Peninsular Ranges Ecological Reserve, Santa Rosa Wilderness, and part of San Jacinto Wilderness, Ecoregion NA1310 and NA1201.

III. National Marine Sanctuary

Channel Islands (site 1). Includes waters within six miles of San Miguel (west of map area), Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz, Anacapa and Santa Barbara Islands. See description under Biosphere Reserves

IV. National Natural Landmarks (NNLs)

National Natural Landmarks are designated by the Secretary of the Interior and tend to be state, local, and private sites with unusual geological or biological interest. They also include areas of the national system of public lands and other federal sites.

La Brea, California (site15). Rancho La Brea, in downtown Los Angeles, contains the largest and most diverse assemblage of Ice Age mammals and plants. Ecoregion NA1201.

Irvine Ranch, California (site 16). This development has a 50,000-acre open space reserve that stretches from the Pacific Ocean to the Cleveland National Forest and is listed as a NNL for its complete stratigraphic record for the last 80 million years, from the late Cretaceous to the present. It is known for fossils of duck-billed dinosaurs. Rare Tecate cypress woodlands are found here. Ecoregion NA1201.

Miramar Mounds, Marine Corps Air Station Miramar, California (site 17). Vernal pools and rare coastal sage scrub located in San Diego. Ecoregion NA1201.

Pixley Vernal Pools Preserve, Center for Natural Lands Management, California (site 18). The last vestige of vernal pool habitat in the San Joaquin Valley, known for flowering goldfield, downingia, quiltwork and popcorn flower. Ecoregion NA801.

Sand Ridge Wildflower Preserve, Center for Natural Land Management, California (site 19). Along Caliente Creek are endangered Bakersfield cacti and a unique assemblage of San Joaquin Valley and Mojave Desert species. Ecoregion NA1202.

Sharktooth Hill Bone Bed, California (site 20). Northeast of Bakersfield is the best fossil marine site in the world, the Ernst Quarries at Sharktooth Hill. The Miocene-age deposit contains the bones of Pacific Ocean animals of 141 species, including sharks, sea lions, turtles, and whales. The area was first examined by Louis Agassiz in 1856 and is still being researched today. Sharkteeth as big as a hand have been unearthed. Ecoregion NA1202.

Tijuana River Estuary, California. See description under Ramsar sites.

Torrey Pines State Natural Reserve, California (site 21). The nation’s rarest pine tree, unique biological communities, and endangered birds are found in this state-managed area. The small grove of Torrey pines on a mountain top overlooks chaparral-covered ocean cliffs. The Los Penasquitos lagoon in the park is part of the North San Diego Lagoons IBA. Ecoregion NA1201.

V. National Park System (US and Mexico)

The national park system includes nationally significant lands with natural and historic interest. Park system units in both countries are included.

Cabrillo National Monument, California (site 22). A rocky coastline, natural chaparral vegetation, and migratory birds are found in this historical park in San Diego. Offshore is a kelp ‘forest.’ The park commemorates the 1542 landing of Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo on the west coast of the United States. Ecoregion NA1201.

Channel Islands National Park, California (site 1). Includes the islands of Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz, and Anacapa on the map. See description under Biosphere Reserves. Ecoregion NA1201 and marine ecoregions 58 and 59.

Constitution of 1857 National Park, Baja California (site23). Conifers and wildflowers surrounding a dry lake. It is also part of the Sierra Juarez IBA as recognized by BirdLife International. Ecoregion NA526.

Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area, California (site 24). The mountain range adjacent to Los Angeles, the Santa Monicas have canyons, beaches and lagoons amid urban encroachments. The backbone trail extends 60 miles through the mountains. Included in the NRA are Malibu Lagoon State Beach, El Matador State Beach, Malibu Creek State Park, Solstice Canyon, and Point Mugu State Park. Ecoregion NA1201.

Sierra de San Pedro Martir National Park, Baja California (site 25). This boulder-studded park contains conifer forest, is home of the National Astronomical Observatory, and is also an IBA. Ecoregion NA526.

VI. Federal Recreation Lakes

The US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) and the Bureau of Reclamation have constructed water management facilities to provide flood control, water storage, and recreation values. Surrounding lands also provide important terrestrial habitats.

Brea Dam, USACE, California (site 26). Managed by the City of Fullerton, this is part of the Los Angeles Flood Control Basins IBA. Ecoregion NA1201.

Lake Cachuma, Bureau of Reclamation, California (site 27). Ecoregion NA1202.

Carbon Canyon Dam, USACE, California (site 26). Managed by Orange County as Carbon Canyon Regional Park and located in Brea, this area has a nature trail and is part of the Los Angeles Flood Control Basins IBA. Ecoregion NA1201.

Lake Casitas, Bureau of Reclamation, California (site 28). This lake contains freshwater marsh which is an IBA for osprey and northern harrier. Ecoregion NA1201.

Eastman Lake, USACE, California (site 29). Located near Raymond on the Chowchilla River, the park is surrounded by oak woodlands. Ecoregion NA1202.

Fullerton Dam, USACE, California (site 26). Managed by Orange County as Craig Regional Park, this area is part of the Los Angeles Flood Control Basins IBA, Ecoregion NA1201.

Hansen Dam, USACE, California (site 30). Managed by the City of Los Angeles in the San Fernando Valley on Tujunga Wash, this is part of the Los Angeles Flood Control Basins IBA. Ecoregion NA1201.

Hensley Lake, USACE, California (site 29). Located at Raymond on the Fresno River, the park is surrounded by oak woodlands. Ecoregion NA1202.

Isabella Lake, USACE, California (site 31). Located on the Kern River, it was built by USACE and is operated as a Kern County park. NA1203.

Lake Kaweah, USACE, California (site 32). Located at Lemon Cove on the Kaweah River. Ecoregion NA1202.

Mojave River Dam, USACE, California (site 33). Managed by the San Bernardino County Parks and located near Hesperia. Ecoregion NA1203.

Pine Flat Lake, USACE, California (site 34). Located east of Fresno on the Kings River and bordered by the Sequoia and Sierra National Forests. Ecoregion NA1202.

Prado Dam, USACE, California (site 35). Managed by San Bernardino County Parks and located in Corona on the Santa Ana River, this area is part of the Los Angeles Flood Control Basins IBA. Ecoregion NA1201.

Santa Fe Dam, USACE, California (site 36). Managed by Los Angeles County and located in Irwindale on the San Gabriel River, this area is part of the Los Angeles Flood Control Basins IBA. Ecoregion NA1201.

Sepulveda Dam, USACE, California (site 37). Located in the Van Nuys area of Los Angeles on the Los Angeles River, this area is managed by the City of Los Angeles and is part of the Los Angeles Flood Control Basins IBA.

Success Lake, USACE, California (site 38). The dam is located near Porterville on the Tule River. The upper end contains valley floor wet grasslands which make it an IBA for grasshopper sparrow, burrowing owl, and tricolored blackbird. Ecoregion NA1202.

Whittier Narrows Dam, USACE, California (site 39). Managed by Los Angeles County and the City of Pico Rivera, this area of coastal sage scrub on the Rio Hondo is part of the Los Angeles Flood Control Basins IBA. Ecoregion NA1201.

VII. National Scenic Trails

The national scenic and historic trails system includes long-distance national trails and shorter national recreation trails (NRTs).

Pacific Crest National Scenic Trail. Extending 2,600 miles from Canada to Mexico, the trail passes through some of the most scenic areas in California. Coastal sage and chaparral lands that the trail passes through, from south to north, are Cleveland NF, Hauser Wilderness, San Bernardino NF, San Jacinto Wilderness, San Gorgonio Wilderness, Angeles NF, Sheep Mountain Wilderness, San Gabriel Wilderness, Kiavah Wilderness, Domeland Wilderness, and Sequoia NF.

Bayside NRT, Cabrillo National Monument, California (site 22). A two-mile trail that offers dramatic views of San Diego Bay. Ecoregion 1201.

Camp Creek NRT, San Bernardino NF, California (site 10). A 2.2-mile trail near Snow Valley. Ecoregion 1203.

Gabrielino NRT, Angeles NF, California (site 6). A 26-mile trail located north of Los Angeles. Ecoregion 1203.

High Desert NRT, Angeles NF, California (site 64). A 27-mile trail located 70 miles northeast of Los Angeles on Route 2. Ecoregion 1203.

Inaja NRT, Cleveland NF, California (site 105). Located one mile east of Santa Ysabel. Ecoregion NA1201.

Lost Lake NRT, Friant Dam-Millertown Lake, Fresno County Parks, California (site 3). Ecoregion NA1202.

Mountains to Sea NRT, Irvine Ranch Conservancy, California (site 16). This trail traverses the Irvine Ranch NNL, a 50,000-acre open space reserve that stretches from the Pacific Ocean to the Cleveland National Forest and is listed as a NNL for its complete stratigraphic record for the last 80 million years, from the late Cretaceous to the present.

Noble Canyon NRT, Cleveland NF, California (site 88). This 10-mile trail is in the Laguna Mountain area. Ecoregion NA1201.

North Shore NRT, San Bernardino NF, California (site 10). This 6-mile trail is at Arrowhead Lake. Ecoregion NA1203.

Observatory NRT, Cleveland NF, California (site 46). This 2.1-mile trail is at Mount Palomar. Ecoregion NA1201.

Piedra Blanca NRT, Los Padres NF, California (site 44). This NRT is located in the Sespe Wilderness. Ecoregion NA1203.

Santa Ana River NRT, Riverside County Regional Park and Open Space District, San Bernardino County Regional Parks, and Orange County Parks, California (site 26). This NRT follows the river from the coast inland and is planned to be 110 miles long from the San Bernardino NF to the coast. Ecoregion NA1201.

Santa Cruz/Aliso NRT, Los Padres National Forest, California (site 27). This 12-mile trail on Oso Creek is east of Lake Cachuma and south of the San Rafael Wilderness. Ecoregion NA1203.

Silver Moccasin NRT, Angeles NF, California (site 6). This 51-mile trail is northwest of Pasadena. Ecoregion NA1203.

Squaw Leap NRT, BLM Bakersfield, California (site 3). This 10.5-mile trail is in the San Joaquin River gorge. Ecoregion NA1202.

Sugarloaf NRT, San Bernardino NF, California (site 10). This five-mile trail is near Big Bear city. Ecoregion NA1203.

West Fork NRT, Angeles NF, California (site 2). This 13-mile trail follows the West Fork of San Gabriel River past waterfalls and through a canyon. Ecoregion NA1203.

VIII. National Wild and Scenic River System

Free-flowing rivers can be classified as wild, scenic, or recreational rivers. The following streams fall into one or more of these categories.

Bautista Creek, San Bernardino NF, California (site 40). A ten-mile section of this creek is designated as a recreational river under the WSR act, is an important migratory bird corridor and is an IBA. Ecoregion NA1203.

Fuller Mill Creek, Mount San Jacinto Wilderness, San Bernardino NF, California (site 41). A three-mile stretch of this creek, complete with waterfalls, is a wild river. Ecoregion NA1203.

Merced River and South Fork Merced River, BLM lands, Sierra and Stanislaus National Forests and Yosemite National Park, California (site 42). This includes 122 river miles including the world’s most famous glacially carved valley, Yosemite. Ecoregion NA527 and NA1202.

Piru Creek, Angeles and Los Padres National Forests, California (site 43). A seven-mile stretch provides wild trout water, condor habitat, and scenic tilted sedimentary rock formations. Ecoregion NA1203.

San Jacinto River, North Fork, San Bernardino National Forest, California (site 40). A ten-mile reach provides habitat for rare wildlife such as mountain yellow-legged frogs and San Bernardino flying squirrel. Ecoregion NA1203.

Sespe Creek, Los Padres National Forest, California (site 44). A 31-mile reach of this creek is designated as a WSR, supporting steelhead trout and arroyo toads. Ecoregion NA1203.

Sisquoc River, Los Padres National Forest, California (site 45). This river in the San Rafael Wilderness supports steelhead trout and flows for 33 miles as a WSR. Ecoregion NA1203.

IX. Wilderness Areas

Agua Tibia Wilderness, Palomar Ranger District, Cleveland NF (site 46). An area just outside of Temecula that consists of dramatic deep canyons with small pools of water. Vegetation is chaparral, oak woodland, and pine-fir forest depending on elevation. Ecoregion NA1201.

Bighorn Mountain Wilderness, BLM and San Bernardino NF, California (site 47). This is a transition between the Mojave Desert and stands of Jeffrey pine. Ecoregion NA1203.

Cahuila Mountain Wilderness, San Bernadino NF, California (site 48). This chaparral-covered area is home to the red diamond rattlesnake. Ecoregion NA1203.

Carrizo Gorge Wilderness, BLM, California (site 49). This transition from the peninsular ranges to the desert offers scenic views. Ecoregion NA1201.

Chumash Wilderness, Los Padres NF, California (site 50). Includes Mount Pinos, conifers, and chaparral in the most rugged terrain in southern California. Ecoregion NA1203.

Cucamonga Wilderness, Angeles and San Bernardino NF, California (site 51). Steep mountain backdrop to the urban San Bernardino basin. Ecoregion NA1203.

Domeland Wilderness, Sequoia NF and BLM, California (site 52). This marks the transition from the southernmost Sierra Nevada Mountains into the deserts. Church Dome is one of the scenic rock formations. Included is the South Fork Kern River National Wild and Scenic River and a section of the Pacific Crest Trail. Ecoregions NA527 and NA1203.

Hauser Wilderness, Descano Ranger District, Cleveland National Forest, California (site 53). Located east of San Diego and south of I-8, this area is noted for granite boulders and rock outcrops. Ecoregion NA1201.

Kiavah Wilderness, Sequoia NF and BLM California Desert District, California (site 54). The transition between the Sierra Nevada and Mojave Desert contains canyons and includes a section of the Pacific Crest Trail. Ecoregions NA1203 and NA1308.

Magic Mountain Wilderness, Angeles NF, California (site 55). Chaparral with oak woodlands overlook suburban Los Angeles. Ecoregion NA1203.

Matilija Wilderness, Los Padres NF, California (site 56). Includes Matilija Creek and scenic canyons lined with alder and maple. Ecoregion NA1203.

Otay Mountain Wilderness, BLM, California (site 57). This area near San Diego protects 20 rare plants and animals, including Tecate cypress, Mexican flannel bush,a nd quino checkerspot butterfly. Ecoregion NA1201.

Owens Peak Wilderness, BLM, California (site 58). This transition area between the Great Basin, Mojave Desert, and Sierra Nevada has a variety of vegetation types including creosote bush, yucca, oak, and pinyon-juniper. Ecoregions NA527, NA1203, and NA1308.

Pine Creek Wilderness, Descanso Ranger District, Cleveland National Forest, California (site 59). An area of chaparral and oak east of San Diego and south of I-8. Ecoregion NA1201.

San Gabriel Wilderness, Angeles NF, California (site 60). Rugged chaparral and pine-covered mountains are found here. Ecoregion NA1203.

San Gorgonio Wilderness, BLM, California (site 61). The eastern slope of the San Bernardino Mountains above 7,000 feet has 81 miles of trails, including the Pacific Crest Trail. Ecoregion NA1203.

San Jacinto Wilderness, San Bernardino National Forest and Santa Rosa and San Jacinto National Monument, California (site 41). The area includes desert to alpine vegetation adjacent to Mount San Jacinto State Park. Ecoregions NA1201, NA1203, and NA1310.

San Mateo Canyon Wilderness, Trabuco Ranger District, Cleveland National Forest, California (site 62). Located west of Lake Elsinore, south of Ortega Highway, and north of Camp Pendleton, the area is noted for spring wildflowers. Ecoregion NA1201.

San Rafael Wilderness, Los Padres NF, California (site 45). This chaparral area of 200,000 acres includes the Sisquoc WSR and the Sisquoc Condor Sanctuary, along with 125 miles of trails. Ecoregion NA1203.

Sawtooth Mountains Wilderness, BLM, California (site 63). Finger ridges extend into the desert north of McCain Valley. Ecoregion NA1201.

Sespe Wilderness, Los Padres NF, California (site 44). Bleak and jagged wilderness of 220,000 acres with boulder-swept areas; includes the Sespe WSR, Sespe Condor Sanctuary, and Sespe Hot Springs. Ecoregion NA1203.

Sheep Mountain Wilderness, Angeles NF, California (site 64). Chaparral to evergreen forests on the north side of the San Gabriel Mountains north of Los Angeles. Ecoregion NA1203.

Dick Smith Wilderness, Los Padres NF, California (site 65). Caparral and conifer area around Madulce Peak has 49 miles of trails. Ecoregion NA1203.

South Fork San Jacinto Wilderness, San Bernardino NF, California (site 48). Noted for lush groves of Douglas fir. Ecoregion NA1203.

X. National Wildlife Refuge (NWR) System

Bitter Creek NWR, California (site 66). Purchased to protect California condor foraging habitat, the refuge is closed to the public. Part of the San Emigdio Mountains IBA. Ecoregion NA1203.

Blue Ridge NWR, California (site 67). This refuge protects foraging habitat for the California condor and is closed to the public. Ecoregion NA 1202.

Hopper Mountain NWR, California (site 44). Located six miles northof Fillmore, this refuge protects foraging areas of the California condor and is closed to the public. Ecoregion NA1203.

Kern NWR, California (site 68). Alkali grassland provides habitat for waterfowl and shorebirds. Part of the Sand Ridge-Tulare Lake Bed IBA. Ecoregion NA801.

Pixley NWR, California (site 69). A dune system on the shore of anicient Tulare Lake attracts sandhill crane and long-eared owl. Part of the Sand Ridge-Tulare Lake Bed IBA. Ecoregion NA 801.

San Diego NWR, California (site 17 and 70). Coastal sage scrub, chaparral, and oak woodlands provide habitat for endangered birds and butterflies. This refuge is an IBA noted for cactus wren, California gnatcatcher, and Bell’s vireo. Ecoregion NA1201.

San Diego Bay NWR, California (site 22). The Sweetwater Marsh unit is home to four endangered or threatened birds, and the South Bay unit is part of the Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network. Ecoregion NA1201.

Seal Beach NWR, California (site 71). Part of the Orange Coast Wetlands IBA, this area preserves habitat for the California least tern and light-footed clapper rail. Ecoregion NA1201.

Tijuana Slough NWR, California (site 5). See description under Tijuana River at Ramsar sites.

XI. Other Federal Sites

Atwell Island Land Retirement Demonstration, BLM Bakersfield District, California (site 72). The site of former Tulare Lake, once the largest freshwater lake west of the Mississippi. Ecoregion NA801.

Camp Pendleton, US Marine Corps, California (site 73). The Santa Margarita River is an unbroken 27-mile long riparian corridor and is an IBA for southwestern willow flycatcher, least Bell’s vireo, long-eared owl, California least tern, snowy plover, and Belding’s savannah sparrow. Ecoregion NA1201.

Goose Lake, Buttonwillow, California (site 74). This BLM site is an alkali sink scrub area and an IBA for breeding yellow-headed blackbirds. Ecoregion NA801.

Horse Canyon, Tehachapi Pass, California (site 75). This BLM site contains fossil animals from the Miocene Epoch. Ecoregion NA1203.

Piute Cypress Natural Area, Bodfish, California (site 76). This BLM site is where this rare tree grows in a chaparral and oak woodland. Ecoregion NA1203.

Point Mugu, Naval Base Ventura County, California (site 77). A large rock formation overlooks coastal estuaries supporting shorebirds and ducks. An IBA. Ecoregion NA1201.

San Clemente Island Naval Auxiliary Landing Field, California (site 78). This southernmost Channel Island supports cactus scrub, grassland, and endemic oaks, and is an IBA for an endemic shrike and sage sparrow. Ecoregion NA1201.

San Joaquin River Gorge Special Recreation Management Area, BLM Bakersfield Office, California (site 79). Noted for trails and wildflowers. Ecoregion NA1203.

XII. State and Local Sites

Agua Hedionda Lagoon Ecological Reserve, California (site 80). Located in Carlsbad, this is part of the North San Diego Lagoons IBA. Ecoregion 1201.

Ballona Wetlands Ecological Reserve, Los Angeles (site 81). This most signifcnatcoastal wetland in Los Angeles is an IBA for least tern and snowy plover. Ecoregion NA1201.

Batiquitos Lagoon Ecological Reserve, California (site 80). Located in Carlsbad, this is part of the North San Diego Lagoons IBA. Ecoregion 1201.

Blue Sky Ecological Reserve, California (site 106). A 700-acre oak-lined stream and canyon between Ramona and Poway in San Diego County. Ecoregion NA1201.

Bolsa Chica State Beach and Bolsas Chica Ecological Reserve, California (site 71). Part of the Orange Coast Wetlands IBA for nesting terns, raptors, and plovers, it is connected by trail to Huntington State Beach. Ecoregion NA1201.

Box Springs Reserve, University of California (UC) Natural Reserve System (site 82). Located on a mountain overlooking Riverside, habitat for chaparral and 19 species of reptiles. Ecoregion NA1201.

Buena Vista Lagoon Ecological Reserve, California (site 80). Located at Oceanside, this is part of the North San Diego Lagoons IBA. Ecoregion NA1201.

Buena Vista Aquatic Recreational Area, Kern County, California (site 83). An IBA for the white-faced ibis. Ecoregion NA801.

Burns Pinon Ridge Reserve, UC Natural Reserve System (site 84). Located at the triple point of the Mojave Desert, Sonoran Desert, and 1203, this area has pinyon-juniper and Joshua tree habitats.

Carpinteria Salt Marsh Reserve, UC Natural Reserve System, Carpinteria (site 85). Habitat for waterfowl and endangered plants and animals. Ecoregion 1203.

Chino Hills State Park, California (site 35) . Located just east of the Los Angeles Basin, this park preserves open space and is part of the Puente-Chino Hills IBA, containing grassland and black walnut woodland with northern harrier, cactus wren, and grasshopper sparrow. To the northwest of the park, the IBA is privately owned. Ecoregion NA 1201.

Coal Canyon Ecological Reserve, California (site 35). Adjoining Chino Hills State Park and Cleveland National Forest, this area is part of the Central Orange County Preserve IBA for California gnatcatcher and grasshopper sparrow. Ecoregion NA1201.

Coal Oil Point Natural Reserve, UC Natural Reserve System (site 86). Located on the UC Santa Barbara West Campus, this provide shoreline and estuarine habitats. Ecoregion NA1201.

Crystal Cove State Park, California (site 87). Wooded canyons, bluffs and three miles of coastline, part of the San Joaquin Hills IBA. Ecoregion NA1201.

Cuyamaca Rancho State Park, California (site 88). A high-elevation hiking area east of San Diego in oak woodland habitats. Part of the San Diego Montane Forests IBA. Ecoregion NA1201.

Dawson Los Monos Canyon Reserve, UC Natural Reserve System (site 80). A lush riparian woodland in Carlsbad and Vista. Ecoregion NA1201.

Elliott Chaparral Reserve, UC Natural Reserve System (site 17). This ridge of Kearney Mesa in San Diego is adjacent to Miramar Marine Corps base. Ecoregion 1201.

Lake Elsinore, City of Lake Elsinore, California (site 89). California’s largest natural lake is an IBA for raptors and terns. Ecoregion NA1201.

Emerson Oaks Reserve, UC Natural Reserve System (site 46). Located adjacent to Agua Tibia Wilderness, this area provides oak woodland and coastal sage habitats. Ecoregion NA1201.

Goleta Coast, UC-Santa Barbara and City of Goleta, California (site 86). The west side of Santa Barbara contains remnant coastal grassland, oak woodland, and tidal wetlands and is an IBA for snowy plover, least tern, Belding’s savannah sparrow, and raptors. Ecoregion NA1203.

Huntington State Beach, California (site 71). Part of the Orange Coast Wetlands IBA for nesting terns, raptors, and plovers, it is connected by trail to Bolsa Chica State Beach. Ecoregion NA1201.

Kendall-Frost Mission Bay Marsh Reserve, UC Natural Reserve System (site 21). Coastal salt marsh habitat in San Diego. Ecoregion NA1201.

Laguna Coast Wilderness Park, Orange County, California (site 87). The San Joaquin hills are an IBA for Nuttall’s woodpecker and Costa’s hummingbird. Flat coastal Los Angeles Basin is interrupted by grasslands, coastal sage scrub, chaparral and oak woodlands. Ecoregion NA1201.

Lake Mathews-Estelle Mountain Reserve, Riverside County Habitat Conservation Agency, California (site 82). This preserve for the Stephen’s kangaroo rat is an IBA for California gnatcatcher. Ecoregion NA1201.

Lower Los Angeles River, City of Long Beach, California (site 90). The concrete channel grows algae and microinvertebrates, which attracts shorebirds such as sandpipers and plovers, making this a unique IBA. It may be viewed from an off-road bicycle path on the east side of the river. Ecoregion NA1201.

Malibu Creek State Park, California (site 24). Trails follow an oak-lined stream through a canyon. Ecoregion 1201.

McGrath State Beach, Oxnard (site 91). More than 200 species of birds make this the best birdwatching area in the state. Ecoregion 1201.

Millertown Lake State Recreation Area, Friant (site 3). Known for wildflower displays and eagle viewing, Ecoregion 1202.

Mission Bay Park, City of San Diego, California (site 21). The Northern Wildlife Reserve is an IBA for waterfowl and shorebirds, including light-footed clapper rail and Belding’s savannah sparrow. Ecoregion NA1201.

Motte Rimrock Reserve, UC Natural Reserve System (site 89). Located west of Perrris, this rocky plateau has habitat for Stephens kangaroo rat and California gnatcatcher. Ecoregion NA1201.

O’Neill Regional Park, Trabuco Canyon, Orange County, California (site 92). Part of the Central Orange County Preserves IBA for California gnatcatcher and grasshopper sparrow. Ecoregion NA1201.

Palomar Mountain State Park. Spectacular views in Cleveland NF (site 46). Ecoregion NA1201.

Lake Perris State Recreaton Area (site 93). Preserves unusual rock formations. Ecoregion NA1201.

Point Dume State Beach (site 24). Known for giant coreopsis, trails,and bluffs. Ecoregion NA1201.

Point Mugu State Park, Camarillo (site 77). Known for whale watching, the park also has miles of trails. Ecoregion NA1201.

Thomas F. Riley Wilderness Park, Coto de Caza, Orange County, California (site 92). Groves of western sycamores and live oaks provide habitat for this area, part of the Central Orange County Preserve IBA for California gnatcatcher and grasshopper sparrow. Ecoregion NA1201.

San Dieguito River Park Joint Powers Authority, Escondido, CA (site 94). The San Dieguito lagoon is being restored and is part of the North San Diego Lagoons IBA. Ecoregion NA1201.

San Elijo Lagoon Ecological Reserve (site 95). Located in Encinitas, this salt marsh and mudflat area also provides coastal sage habitat for California gnatcatcher. Part of the North San Diego Lagoons IBA. Ecoregion NA1201.

Mount San Jacinto State Park (site 41). 10,000-foot mountains overlooking the desert. Ecoregion NA1203.

San Jacinto Wildlife Area, California (site 96). An IBA for breeding white-faced ibis, rails, blackbirds and ferruginous hawks. Ecoregion NA1201.

San Luis Rey Trail, City of Oceanside (site 80). The San Luis Rey Lagoon is part of the North San Diego Lagoons IBA. Ecoregion NA1201.

San Joaquin Marsh Reserve, UC Nature Reserve System (site 16). Located adjacent to UC Irvine campus, this provide habitat for light-footed clapper rail and California least tern. Ecoreigon NA1201.

San Onofre State Beach (site 97). Three miles of oceanfront at San Clemente. Ecoregion NA1201.

Santa Margarita Ecological Reserve, San Diego State University, California (site 110). This area between Temecula and Fallbrook contains the five-mile long Temecula Gorge. Ecoregion NA1201.

Santa Rosa Plateau Ecological Reserve, Riverside County Park, California (site 98). This area protects oak woodlands, vernal pools, and 49 endangered or threatened species. Ecoregion NA1201

Santa Ysabel Open Space Reserve, San Diego County, California (site 111). This area contains oak woodlands and grasslands near Julian. Ecoregion NA1201.

Santiago Oaks Regional Park, Orange, Orange County, California (site 99). Part of the Central Orange County Preserves IBA for California gnatcatcher and grasshopper sparrow. Ecoregion NA1201.

Scripps Coastal Reserve, UC Natural Reserve System (site 22). Adjacent to Scripps Institute of Oceanography, this area offers grassy knolls, coastal canyons, and the 1050-foot long Scripps pier. Ecoregion NA1201.

Stunt Ranch Santa Monica Mountains Reserve, UC Natural Reserve System (site24). Located north of Malibu, this is centered on the pristine Cold Creek watershed. Ecoregion NA1201.

Topanga State Park (site 100). Over 11,000 acres of Santa Monica Mountains and trails. Ecoregion NA1201.

Torrey Pines State Natural Reserve, California (site 21). See description under National Natural Landmarks. Ecoregion NA1201.

Tule Elk State Natural Reserve (site 83). Located north of Buena Vista Lake. Ecoregion NA801.

Volcan Mountain Wilderness, San Diego County, California (site 111). This 17,000-acre mountain near Julian is a mixed conifer forest on the edge of the desert. Ecoregion NA1201.

XIII. Other Natural Sites

Aguanga Valley, California (site 101). This area of coastal sage, mesquite,a nd coast live oak is an IBA for least Bell’s vireo and orioles. Ecoregion NA1201.

Coronado Islands, Baja California (site 102). Just south of San Diego, these are recognized as an IBA.

Cuyama Valley, California (site 103). This privately held area between Carrizo Plain NM and Los Padres NF contains grassland and sage scrub and is an IBA for raptors, burrowing owl, and tricolored blackbird. Ecoregion NA1202.

Kelso Creek, California (site 31). This private site near Isabella Reservoir is a lush woodland of cottonwood and willows, along with Joshua tree woodland and chaparral is an IBA for burrowing owl and migrant songbirds. Ecoregion NA1202.

Merced Grasslands, California (site 104). The Central Valley edge northof Fresno is a vast undulating prairie and an IBA for raptors and long-billed curlew. Ecoregion NA801.

Pamo Valley, California (site 105). This area near San Diego contains an ancient oak woodland and is an IBA for grasshopper sparrow and tricolored blackbird. Ecoregion NA1201.

Pier 400 Tern Colony, Port of Los Angeles (site 90). This artificial island is maintained by the Port of Los Angeles for least tern nesting and is an IBA. Ecoregion NA1201.

Ramona Grasslands Reserve, San Diego County, California (site 105). Vernal pools, alkali playas, and grasslands are protected west of Ramona. Ecoregion NA1201.

San Luis Rey River, California (site 106). The river, a short stretch of which flows through the Cleveland National Forest, is an IBA for willow flycatcher and least Bell’s vireo and raptors. Lake Henshaw is surrounded by grassland habitat and the largest expanse of Engelmann oak woodland in the world. Ecoregion NA1201.

San Pasqual Valley-Lake Hodges, California (site 94). An IBA with lowland riparian habitat supports least Bell’s vireo, willow flycatcher, and California gnatcatcher. Ecoregion NA1201.

Sand Ridge-Tulare Lake Bed, California (site 68). This IBA made of the floodwater basins of the former Tulare Lake, Creighton Ranch, Kern NWR, and Pixley NWR is habitat for waterfowl, shorebirds, and breeding terns. Ecoregion NA801.

Santa Ana River Valley, California (site 107). The grassland and coastal sage scrub of Rubidoux Nature Center and Prado Basin are an IBA for Bell’s vireo, yellow-billed cuckoo and burrowing owl. Ecoregion NA1201.

Santa Catalina Island, California (site 108). This island is 90 percent owned by the Catalina Island Conservancy and is part of the northern Channel Islands IBA. The Conservancy maintains more than 200 miles of trails. See description under Biosphere Reserves. Ecoregion NA1201.

Santa Clara River Valley, California (site 109). A large community of riparian-obligate birds such as Bell’s vireo, willow flycatcher, and yellow-billed cuckoo. Ecoregion NA1201.

Santa Cruz Island, California (site 1). This island is partly owned by the Nature Conservancy. See description under Channel Islands NP.

Sierra Juarez, Baja California (site 23). The mountain range is recognized as an IBA by Birdlife International. Ecoregion NA526.

Skinner Reservoir, California (site 112). Coastal sage scrub and grassland owned by the Metropolitan Water District is a key raptor wintering area and IBA. Ecoregion NA1201.

Starr Ranch, California (site 92). Part of the Southern Orange County IBA, this grassland-oak belt property managed by the National Audubon Society contains habitat for San Diego cactus wren and California gnatcatcher. Ecoregion NA1201.

Taft Hills, California (site 113). Low rolling hills at the eastern edge of the Tremblor Range contain alkali scrub, coast range scrub, endemic plants. An IBA for Leconte’s thrasher. Ecoregion NA 1202.

Tehachapi Oaks, California (site 114). This northwestern slope overlooks the Central Valley. The oak woodland ecosystem owned by Tejon Ranch is a migratory bird corridor and an IBA for purple martin. Ecoregion NA1203.

Wind Wolves Preserve, The Wildlands Conservancy, California (site 115). The largest privately owned preserve in California at 95,000 acres protects habitats ranging from San Joaquin Valley Grasslands to ponderosa pine forests. Tule elk and pronghorn are found here, along with oak-savanna and Bakersfield cactus. Part of the San Emigdio Mountains IBA, which is an IBA for tricolored blackbirds, willow flycatcher, yellow warbler, and California spotted owl. Ecoregions NA801, NA1202, and NA1203.

Coastal Sage, Chaparral and Nearby Mountains

2012-01-18T23:15:00.001-05:00

Galapagos of North America, uncontrollable fires, and shark teeth as big as a hand

I. Map boundaries: 30 to 40 degrees North; 110 to 120 degrees West

II. Country (State): Mexico (Baja California), United States (California). Note: This post focuses on Mediterranean ecosystems within the map boundaries. Other desert and montane ecosystems within these map boundaries will be described in future posts.

III. Overview

The Sierra Juarez and San Pedro Martir montane forests (NA526), Sierra Nevada (NA527, to be described in a future post), Central Valley (NA801), California coastal sage scrub and chaparral (NA1201), California interior chaparral and woodlands (NA1201), and California montane chaparral and woodlands (NA1203) are all in a region of dry summers and winter rain and snow. This climate leads to distinct ecosystems adapted to summer drought. The map area (30 to 40 degrees north and 110 to 120 degrees longitude west) intersects Mediterranean ecosystems in Baja California and California. There are three distinct mountain ranges. The Sierra Nevada and its southern extension, the Tehachapi Mountains, area a north-south range. The Transverse Ranges (Santa Monica, San Gabriel, and San Bernardino Mountains) extend east-west at about 34.5 degrees north. The Peninsular Ranges trend northwest-southeast and include the Santa Ana, San Jacinto, Palomar, Laguna, Sierra Juarez, and Sierra San Pedro Martir ranges on the map area. Coastal sage scrub is at the lower elevations and is typical of NA1201. Shrubs in the genera Artemisia, Salvia, and Encelia are common, along with woody deciduous shrubs such as Fraxinus, Aesculus and Rosa and succulents such as Agave, Echinocereus, and Opuntia. Chaparral genera are Adenostoma, Ceanothus, Arctostaphylos, Quercus, and Rhamnus.

Winter rains encourage carpets of grasses and shrubs to grow, then the vegetation dries out and dead litter accumulates. Inevitably, large, hot fires occur and burn the plants and everything else to the ground. Following a burn, there is typically rapid recovery of the coastal sage scrub and chaparral. In the urban-wildland interface, there is a dispute over whether efforts to control fires may actually make it worse. Minnich (1983) argues that fires in chaparral increase in size, spread rate, and intensity as initially successful suppression efforts create so much fuel that fires become uncontrollable. According to this view, creation of a mosaic of different ages in chaparral is desirable to limit fires (Minnich 1983). Keeley, Fotheringham, and Morais (1999), in contrast, argue that fire frequency, areas burned, and fire size have not increased due to fire suppression. This is in part because uncontrollable fires are driven by autumn foehn winds that blow at speeds exceeding 100 km/hour. Under these windy conditions, fires will burn through all age classes of fuels, and rotational burning programs in chaparral are unlikely to be effective in stopping these fires. At the southern tip of the Mediterranean ecosystems in Baja California lie the San Pedro Martir Mountains. Here, fewer efforts have been made for fire suppression, and frequent fires have kept the Jeffrey pine-dominated forests resistant to insects and disease (Shouse 2003).

Known as the “Galapagos of North America,” the Channel Islands harbor 145 endemic or unique species. One of the few remaining natural coastal ecosystems, the Channel Islands have coastal sage scrub and pristine marine tide pools. Ocean currents upwell at the islands, providing nutrients for remarkable marine productivity. Extensive kelp forests support marine life. The largest island, Santa Cruz, has been the site of an extensive ecological restoration effort to remove sheep and pigs. In addition, a protected species, the Golden Eagle, had moved into the islands to prey on the pigs and had the unintended consequence of further stressing the island fox, to the point of eliminating entire subspecies on several islands. Golden eagles were also removed from Santa Cruz. The removal of these exotic animals has allowed native vegetation, including oaks, and native animals, including the Santa Cruz Island fox and bald eagle, to make a comeback. On Anacapa Island, the removal of the black rat has allowed seabirds, lizards, and salamanders to make a comeback. Santa Catalina Island has also been the subject of eradication efforts, especially of herbivores, and the original vegetation is returning. This includes oak woodland, chaparral, and coastal scrub (Mohlenbrock 2001).

The San Andreas fault extends from the San Francisco area southeastward into the map area. At the Carrizo Plain National Monument, a unit of the National Landscape Conservation System, a record of earthquakes along the fault is provided in offset stream channels. This area of the fault last ruptured in 1857, and the slip was 5.3 m. This slip and stream offset occurred during a cluster of earthquakes that centered around the big event. The historic interval for large-earthquake recurrence is estimated at 140 years (Zielke et al. 2010). Since the 1857 earthquake, more than five meters of strain has accumulated (Ludwig et al. 2010).

The east-west Transverse Ranges that overlook the Los Angeles basin reach up to 11,000 feet in elevation. Although the mountains are mostly granite and quartzite rock, outcrops of limestone are found on the northern slopes and rare plant communities are in the San Bernardino National Forest, growing in the understory beneath pinyon pine and juniper. The plants are Parish’s daisy, Cushenbury buckwheat, Cushenbury milk vetch, San Bernardino Mountains bladderpod,a nd Cushenbury oxytheca (Mohlenbrock 1993a). Another unusual habitat in the San Bernardino National Forest is pebble plains. These are deep carpets of quartzite rocks. This inhibits forest vegetation, and 45 types of rare plants grow here, many of which have developed gray, hairy leaves to reduce aridity, or are succulent. Examples are the Baldwin Lake linanthus, and Munz’s hedgehog cactus (Mohlenbrock 1993b).

The mountains of southern California provide at least two major fossil sites from the age of mammals. One is Sharktooth Hill, a National Natural Landmark (NNL) northeast of Bakersfield, which is considered the best fossil marine site in the world, The Ernst Quarries at Sharktooth Hill are a Miocene-age deposit containing the bones of Pacific Ocean animals of 141 species, including sharks, sea lions, turtles, and whales. The area was first examined by Louis Agassiz in 1856 and is still being researched today. Sharkteeth as big as a hand have been unearthed. Rancho La Brea, in downtown Los Angeles, contains the largest and most diverse assemblage of terrestrial Ice Age mammals and plants. Mammals began to get stuck in the asphalt and sand site at least 36,000 years ago. Perhaps the most famous of the mammals at La Brea are the sabertoothed cats. Many other carnivores also were trapped in the tar pits, including dire wolves, spotted hyena, coyotes, three types of bears, wolves, pumas, and lions. The teeth of the carnivores have been studied, and many are broken at the tar pits, suggesting competition for food was intense (Van Valkenburgh 1994). The long dagger-like canines called sabertooths have evolved several different times during the Age of Mammals, including in Australia and South America. It is believed that the teeth were useful in slicing open the bellies of victims (Janis 1994).

IV. Terrestrial Ecoregions

Ecoregions of the Neararctic Biome

Temperate Coniferous Forests

NA526, Sierra Juarez and San Pedro Martir pine-oak forests. Two mountain ranges support pine and fir forests in a Mediterranean climate regime of winter rains. There are ten species of pine. Found in Baja California.

Temperate Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands

NA801, California Central Valley grasslands. Perennial bunchgrass ecosystem and oak-grass savanna grade into desert grasslands in the south. Extensive mass flowerings of California poppy and other wildflowers are characteristic. Vernal pools are found in flooded depressions. Found in California.

Mediterranean Forests, Woodland, and Scrub

NA 1201, California coastal sage and chaparral. The fire-adapted coastal sage and chaparral plants are interspersed with oak woodlands. Higher elevations support pine forests. Found in Baja California and California.

NA 1202, California interior chaparral and woodlands. A zone of oak woodland and chaparral rings the Central Valley grasslands. Found in California.

NA1203, California montane chaparral and woodlands. The southern extension of the Sierra Nevada and the mountains surrounding the Los Angeles basin have plant communities consisting of chaparral, pinyon-juniper, oak woodlands, and pine forests. Found in California.

V. Freshwater Ecoregions

Temperate Coastal Rivers

125. Sacramento-San Joaquin. One of the richest ecoregions west of the Rockies for fish, with 40 natives. It has five endemic fish genera and a near-endemic salamander, Hydromantes. Rivers from terrestrial ecoregions 801, 1202, and 1203 are in this freshwater ecoregion.

Xeric Freshwaters and Endorheic (closed) Basins

128. Death Valley. Includes the eastern clopes of the Sierra Nevada and the northern slopes of the Transverse Range, with rivers such as the Mojave River. There are five endemic fish and 20 endemic mollusks.

159. Southern California Coastal-Baja California. The fish fauna is marine derived, with anadromous steelhead and Pacific lamprey. There are four endemic fish in the Los Angeles Basin.

VI. Marine Ecoregions

Temperate Northern Pacific Realm, Cold Temperate Northeast Pacific Province

58. Northern California. Found west of San Nicholas and north of Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz, and Anacapa in the map area.

Temperate Northern Pacific Realm, Warm Temperate Northeast Pacific Province

59. Southern California Bight. Found south of the Channel Islands along the coast of terrestrial ecoregion NA1201.

VII. Man and the Biosphere Reserves

Channel Islands, California (site 1). Known as the “Galapagos of North America,” the biosphere reserve preserves 145 endemic or unique species and includes Channel Islands National Park and Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary. One of the few remaining natural coastal ecosystems, the Channel Islands have sage scrub and pristine marine tidepools. Ocean currents provide upwelling waters, providing nutrients for remarkable marine productivity. Extensive kelp forests support marine life. There are 11 marine reserves established by the state of California and NOAA where all fishing is prohibited. The western three-fourths of Santa Cruz Island is a privately owned Nature Conservancy preserve; access is available by permit. Hiking trail systems are found on Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz, Anacapa, and Santa Barbara. Mainland visitor centers are at Ventura and Santa Barbara. Anacapa is three islets that are joined at low tide. It is known for Arch Rock and wildflowers. Santa Rosa has a northern escarpment that drops off steeply into the ocean. Santa Cruz has sea caves and a diversity of terrestrial habitats. Santa Barbara Island is a nesting area for Xantus’s murrelets. The islands are part of the Northern Channel Islands IBA, the most important seabird nesting area in California. Endemics include Catalina California quail, Island loggerhead shrike, Catalina Hutton’s vireo, San Clemente spotted towhee, Santa Cruz Island rufous-crowned sparrow, Channel Islands song sparrow, and island scrub jay. Ecoregion NA1201.

San Dimas Experimental Range, Angeles National Forest, California (site 2). The watersheds of Little Dalton, Big Dalton, and San Dimas Canyons just to the north of the cities of Claremont, Glendora, and San Dimas in the Los Angeles metropolitan area. A chaparral research site with emphasis on fire ecology, water yield, and air pollution effects on vegetation. Included is the Fern Canyon Research Natural Area. Ecoregion NA1203.

San Joaquin Experimental Range and Research Natural Area, California (site 3). Located in O’Neals, California, this is an area of open oak woodland and chaparral, used for research and education on fire ecology, bird population dynamics, and livestock grazing impacts. Ecoregion NA1202.

VIII. Ramsar Sites

Punta Banda Estuary, Baja California (site 4). Tidal marshes, mud flats, and seagrass beds support dolphins, gray whale, seal, sea lions and breeding areas for 150 species of fish. Ecoregion NA1201.

Tijuana River National Estuarine Research Reserve, California (site 5). The finest saltwater marsh on the California coast contains coastal wetlands, sand dunes, and sage scrub and is home for eight endangered or threatened birds, invertebrates, and plants. A NNL and an IBA for light-footed clapper rail, northern harrier, California least tern, and California gnatcatcher; the NERR includes Tijuana Slough NWR, Border Field State Park, US Navy, and San Diego city and county property. Ecoregion NA1201.

IX. Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network

South San Diego Bay, California. Part of the San Diego Bay NWR, the site contains mud flats, eel grass beds, and salt marshes that support more than 20,000 shorebirds. It is also an IBA for breeding terns. Ecoregion NA1201.

X. National Estuarine Research Reserves

Tijuana River, California. See description under Ramsar sites.

To be continued with National Forests, National Landscape Conservation System, National Marine Sanctuaries, National Natural Landmarks, National Park System, Federal Recreation Lakes, National Scenic Trails, National Wild and Scenic River System, Wilderness Areas, and state and local sites.

XI. Further Reading

Courchamp, Franck, Rosie Woodroffe and Gary Roemer. 2003. Removing Protected Populations to Save Endangered Species. Science 302:1532.

Janis, Christine. 1994. The Sabertooth’s Repeat Performances. Natural History, April 1994, pp. 78-83.

Keeley, Jon E., C.J. Fotheringham, and Marco Morais. 1999. Reexamining Fire Suppression Impacts on Brushland Fire Regimes. Science 284:1829-1832.

Ludwig, Lisa Grant, et al. 2010. Climate-Modulated Channel Incision and Rupture History of the San Andreas Fault in the Carrizo Plain. Science 327:1117-1119.

Mohlenbrock, Robert H. 2001. Channeling in California. Natural History, September 2001, pp. 22-24.

Mohlenbrock, Robert H. 1993a. Cushenbury Canyon, California. Natural History, February 1993, pp. 58-60.

Mohlenbrock, Robert H. 1993b. Pebble Plains, California. Natural History, August 1993, pp. 14-17.

Mohlenbrock, Robert H. 1984. The Field Guide to U.S. National Forests. Congdon and Weed, Inc.

Noble, John et al. 2010. Mexico. Lonely Planet Publications.

Shouse, Ben. 2003. Old-Growth Forest Spared for Now. Science 299:802.

UNESCO-Man and the Biosphere Reserves Directory. http://www.unesco.org/mabdb/br/brdir/directory/database.asp (accessed 5/30/11).

Van Valkenburgh, Blaire. 1994. Tough Times in the Tar Pits. Natural History, April 1994, pp. 84-85.

Vidal, R.M., H. Berlangia, and M. de Coro Arimendi. 2009. Mexico In C. Devenish, D.F. Diaz Fernandez, R.P. Clay, I. Davidson, and I. Yepez Zabala, eds. Important Bird Areas Americas—Priority Sites for Biodiversity Conservation. Quito, Ecuador. BirdLife International. BirdLife Conservation Series No. 16.

World Heritage List. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list (accessed 5/22/11).

Zielke, Olaf, et al. 2010. Slip in the 1857 and Earlier Large Earthquakes Along the Carrizo Plain, San Andreas Fault. Science 327:1119-1122.

Cultural Sites of the Southwest

2011-12-17T15:55:00.001-05:00

The following is a list of National Historic Landmarks, other nationally designated sites, and notable sites of the prehistoric, historic, and scientific landscape in the Southwest, 30 to 40 degrees North, 110 to 120 degrees West. World Heritage Sites and a narrative were provided in the previous entry. Sites are keyed to the cultural landscape map in the previous entry.

I. US National Historic Landmarks

Ahwahnee, Yosemite National Park, California. This resort hotel in the eastern end of Yosemite Valley was opened in 1927 and is still in use (site 1 on map). Ecoregion NA527.

Angelus Temple, Los Angeles. Made famous by a depression-era radio evangelist.

Awatovi Ruins, Hopi Tribal Land (Site 2 on map). An Indian village encountered by Coronado’s men in 1540 contains a 500-year old pueblo and a 17^th century Spanish mission. The village was abandoned in 1700 due to tensions between Hope traditionalists and Christian converts. Ecoregion NA1304.

Balboa City Park, San Diego. Constructed for the 1915 Panama-California Exposition, it includes America’s finest examples of Spanish baroque architecture. Ecoregion NA1201.

Baldwin Hills Village, Los Angeles. Located in southwest LA, this park-like residential community is now condominiums known as the Village Green. Created during the depression by a prominent Los Angeles architect, the intent was to provide affordable housing. It is listed because of its advances in community planning and architecture. Streets and parks are lined with mature sycamore and olive trees.

Bancroft, Hubert H., Ranch, Spring Valley, California (Site 3 on map). Home of he noted historian of the American West. Ecoregion NA1201.

Barnesdall, Aline Complex, Los Angeles. Built in 1921 as Frank Lloyd Wright’s first commission in California.

Berkeley, San Diego Maritime Museum, California. The nation’s oldest car and passenger ferry, built 1898.

Bradbury Building, Los Angeles. This five-story office building from 1893 is known for its cobwebs of cast iron covered with Art Nouveau ornamentation.

Big and Little Petroglyph Canyons, Coso Mountains, China Lake Naval Weapons Center, California (site 4 on map). Big and Little Petroglyph Canyons contain the most spectacular petroglyph areas in the western US, with 20,000 designs showing bighorn sheep, deer, antelope. Along the canyon walls are anthropomorphic figures showing dogs attacking sheep and people hunting sheep. Piled rock statues are ‘dummy hunters’ of bighorn sheep. Ecoregion NA1308.

Bodie State Historical Park, California, and Bodie Hills Area of Critical Environmental Concern, BLM Bishop District, California (site 5 on map). The finest example of a gold mining ghost town in the West, dating from 1859. Ecoregion NA1305.

Bryce Canyon Lodge and Deluxe Cabins, Bryce Canyon National Park, Utah (Site 6 on map). Built 1924 to 1929, the rustic architecture encouraged by the National Park Service was constructed by the Union Pacific Railroad. Ecoregion NA530.

Colter, Mary Jane, Buildings, Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona (site 7 on map). Four structures on the South Rim designed by architect Colter and built by the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railroad make up this site. The Hopi House (1905), located in Grand Canyon Village, was modeled after a Hopi pueblo and was used to sell Indian handicrafts. The Lookout Studio (1914), also in Grand Canyon Village, was a photography studio. Hermit’s Rest (1914) is the western terminus of the Rim Trail. Desert View Watchtower (1932), a 70-foot tall tower at the east end of the park, is used as a gift shop and observation point. Ecoregion NA503 and NA1304.

Coronado, Hotel del, Coronado, California (site 8 on map). Constructed in 1887, the hotel had the first electrical system and is considered the most architecturally interesting luxury hotel in the U.S.

Desert Botanical Laboratory (Tumamoc Hill), University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona (site 9 on map). This 854-acre site, operated today by the University of Arizona, was the site where the science of plant ecology was born. It is also the earliest known trincheras village, dating to 2000 BC, and houses thousands of petroglyphs. Ecoregion NA1310.

Desolation Canyon, Uinta and Ouray Indian Reservation (site 10 on map). This area along the Green River remains little changed from the time it was first explored by John Wesley Powell in 1869. Ecoregion NA1304.

Eames House, Pacific Palisades, California (site 11 on map). Case Study House Number 8 was one of the most significant post World War II experiments in domestic architecture.

Ely Yards, Nevada Northern Railway Museum, Ely (site 12 on map). Listed because it escaped modernization when other yards were upgraded to diesel, it is the best-preserved and least altered railroad yard complex remaining from the steam era. Ecoregion NA1305.

Estudillo House, Old Town San Diego State Historical Park, San Diego. An adobe house built in 1827, finest in Mexican California.

Flores Adobe, Marine Corps Camp Pendleton, California (site 13 on map). Built 1864, this structure is considered the best example of the Monterrey Colonial style of architecture, which combines New England and Mexican adobe traditions.

Fort Churchill State Historic Park, Nevada (site 14 on map). This site served from 1860 to 1870 as a Pony Express Station, a telegraph site, and emigrant trail protection for the Carson Route of the California Trail. Ecoregion NA1305.

Fort Huachuca Historical Museum, Arizona (site 15 on map). This fort subjugated the Chiracahua Apache, the last free-ranging Indian group, in 1886, and was home to the Army’s four all-black regiments. Ecoregion NA1303.

Forty Acres, Delano, California (site 16 on map). This gas station was the birthplace of the farm workers movement, led by Cesar Chavez, in 1970. Ecoregion NA1202.

Gamble, David B., House, Pasadena (site 17 on map). One of the finest expressions of the Arts and Crafts movement. The design of the house, constructed in 1908, was influenced by the Japanese pavilion at the 1893 Chicago World’s Columbian Exposition.

Gatlin Site, Gila Bend, Arizona (site 18 on map). Occupied before 900 CE, this site contains a Hohokam platform mound, ball courts, houses, and canals. It is owned by the City of Gila Bend. Ecoregion NA1310.

Grand Canyon Depot, Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona (site 7 on map). This rustic railroad depot was built in 1910.

Grand Canyon Lodge, Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona (site 7 on map). This stone and log lodge with 100 log cabins was built 1936 by the Union Pacific Railroad as a destination resort.

Grand Canyon Park Operations Building, Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona (site 7 on map). Erected in 1929, this is a prime example of the rustic style employed by the National Park Service.

Grand Canyon Power House, Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona (site 7 on map). Built in 1926 with a Swiss chalet design to disguise its power house function.

Grand Canyon Village, Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona (site 7 on map). This early twentieth century facility is the largest town developed by the National Park Service to meet the needs of visitors and park staff.

Guajome Rancho Adobe, Vista, California (site 19 on map). The finest remaining example of a Mexican ranch headquarters, built 1852. Ecoregion NA1201.

Gonzales House, Santa Barbara. A Mexican-era adobe house built 1825.

Hale Solar Observatory, Pasadena (site 17 on map). This was the office and workshop of Ellery Hale, the person most responsible for the rise of astrophysics in the U.S. See Mount Wilson Observatory in other points of interest below.

Harada House, Riverside, California (site 20 on map). In California v. Harada (1916-1918), the court ruled that all native-born children, even minor children of immigrant parents, could own land.

Hohokam Pima National Monument, Gila River Indian Community (site 21 on map). The Snaketown archaeological site, dating to 300 BCE and abandoned 1100 CE, contains a pueblo and associated agricultural features. The area has been excavated for archaeological research and covered. Ecoregion NA1310.

Hoover Dam, Arizona-Nevada (site 22 on map). Listed as the greatest achievement in hydraulic engineering since the Panama Canal; a historic civil engineering landmark. Ecoregion NA1308.

Hubble, Edwin, House, San Marino (site 17 on map). Home of one of America’s greatest astronomers.

Jerome State Historic Park and Historic District, Arizona (site 23 on map). This preserves the richest copper-producing area in the early 20^th century. The mine closed in 1953, but the town was preserved as a tourist attraction. Ecoregion NA503.

Kinishba Ruins, White Mountain Apache Tribal Land (site 24 on map). This 600-room village was built in the 1100s and abandoned in the 14^th or 15^th century. Ecoregon NA503.

Lane Victory Ship, San Pedro (site 25 on map). One of the last remaining of 414 Victory Ships, it is a memorial to Merchant Marine veterans of World War II.

Leconte Memorial Lodge, Yosemite National Park, California (site 1 on map). Built by the Sierra Club in 1903, it is a library and education center still operated by the club. Ecoregion NA527.

Lehner Mammoth Kill Site, San Pedro Riparian National Conservation Area, Arizona (site 45 on map). About 11,000 years ago, hunters killed and butchered mammoths on this site.

Leonard Rock Shelter, Nevada (site 26 on map). At the terminus of the Humboldt and Carson Rivers are marshy sinks. This early prehistoric site overlooks the sinks and has a continuous record of human occupation from 6700 BCE to 1400 CE. Ecoregion NA1305.

Little Tokyo Historic District, Los Angeles. Before World War II, this was the largest Japanese-American community in America.

Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, Los Angeles. Used for Olympic Games in 1932 and 1984.

Los Cerritos Ranch House, Long Beach, California (site 25 on map). Among the largest ranch houses built in Mexican California, 1844, the building is in a city park. Ecoregion NA1201.

Lowell Observatory, Flagstaff, Arizona (site 26 on map). The 1894 observatory where Percival Lowell and other scientists studied Mars, discovered Pluto, developed the science of dendrochronology, and discovered that the universe continues to expand.

Manzanar National Historic Site, California (site 27 on map). Located in the Owens Valley, this was one of ten war relocation centers where Japanese-American citizens were interned during World War II. Ecoregions NA 1305 and NA1308.

Merriam, C. Hart, Base Camp, Coconino National Forest, Arizona (site 28 on map). Located on the northwest slopes of Humphreys Peak, this area to the north of Flagstaff on Forest Road 151 was where Dr. C. Hart Merriam formulated his Life Zone Concept in 1889. Ecoregion NA503.

Mission Basilica San Diego de Alcala, San Diego. The first of the 21 California missions, built 1769.

Mission Beach Roller Coaster, Mission Beach, California (San Diego). Built 1925 as part of the Mission Beach Amusement Center, an early 20^th century recreational development.

Mission Dam, San Diego. This 1817 dam was the first major irrigation project on the Pacific Coast and impounded water for milling and irrigating fields at Mission San Diego de Alcala. Ecoregion NA1201.

Mission Inn, Riverside, California (site 20 on map). Established 1876, this has grown into a lavish resort hotel.

Mission Los Santos Angeles de Guevavi, Tumacacori National Historical Park, Arizona (site 29 on map). The northernmost extension of the Jesuit mission in New Spain, this site was built in 1745 and abandoned in 1773. Ecoregion NA1303.

Mission San Luis Rey de Francia, Oceanside, California (site 19 on map). Founded 1798, the present church was built in 1815 and is part of California’s most pristine mission complex.

Modjeska, Helena, House and Forest of Arden Garden, Orange County Park, California (site 30 on map). A wooden cottage was the home of Helena Modjeska, from 1888 to 1906, one of the first ‘stars’ to settle in southern California. Ecoregion NA1201.

Mountain Meadows Massacre, Dixie National Forest, Utah (site 31 on map). The site of an 1857 attack on an immigrant party bound for California on the Old Spanish Trail by the Utah Territorial Militia. Ecoregion NA1304.

Newlands, Francis G. Home, Reno, Nevada (site 32 on map). Home of the representative who authored the Reclamation Act of 1902 which enabled agriculture throughout the West.

Nixon, Richard M., Birthplace, Yorba Linda, California (site 33 on map). This bungalow was the birthplace and home from 1913 to 1922.

Oak Grove Butterfield Stage Station, Temecula Valley south of Aguanga, California (site 34 on map). Part of the first transcontinental stagecoach service, operating from 1858 to 1861 between San Francisco and St. Louis or Memphis. Ecoregion 1201.

Oraibi, Hopi Tribal Land (site 35 on map). The oldest continuously occupied village in the US, dating to 1150 CE. Ecoregion NA1304.

Parson’s Memorial Lodge, Yosemite National Park (site 1 on map). Built 1915 as one of the first rustic stone buildings in a national park, it is used as a nature center. Ecoregion NA527.

Pico Canyon Oil Field, Well No. 4, Santa Clarita Woodlands Park, Newhall, California (site 36 on map). Administered by the Santa Monica Mountains Conservancy, a state agency, this was the birthplace of California’s oil industry in the 1870s. The oil field here led to the formation of the Standard Oil Company of California. Ecoregions NA1201 and NA1203.

Pioneer Deep Space Station, Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex, Fort Irwin, California (site 37 on map). This antenna constructed in 1958 supports unmanned exploration of deep space. Ecoregion NA 1308.

Presidio City Park, San Diego. Site of the first permanent European settlement on the Pacific Coast of the present-day U.S., the park offers trails and gardens.

Pueblo Grande Museum and Archaeological Park, Phoenix, Arizona. This Phoenix city park preserves sections of prehistoric irrigation canals in the Salt River Valley. The Hohokam Canal System is a historic civil engineering landmark. See overview section. Ecoregion NA1310.

Ralph J. Scott, San Pedro (site 25 on map). Still in use, this 1925 fireboat operates out of a berth in San Pedro.

Ranger’s Club, Yosemite National Park, California (site 1 on map). A rustic chalet built to house rangers in 1924 and still in use. Ecoregion NA527.

Rogers Dry Lake, Edwards Air Force Base, California (site 38 on map). The largest natural landing field in the West, this site has been used for aircraft flight testing since 1933. It was here that the first flights broke the sound barrier. Ecoregion NA1308.

Rose Bowl, Pasadena, California (site 17 on map). The first and most renowned of the postseason college bowl games, established in 1916.

Saddle Rock Ranch Pictograph Site, Malibu, California (site 39 on map). A Chumash site famous for the pictograph of the four horsemen, considered to be a drawing of a Spanish exploring party. Ecoregion NA1201.

San Cayetano de Calabazas, Tumacacori National Historical Park, Arizona (site 29 on map). Established 1756, Captain Juan Bautista de Anza led over 300 people from here to the San Francisco Bay in 1775-76 to establish a Spanish colony and presidio there. Ecoregion NA1303.

Santa Barbara Mission, Santa Barbara. The most architecturally distinguished link in California’s 21-mission chain.

Santa Monica Looff Hippodrome, Santa Monica (site 11 on map). Built in 1916 to house a carousel at the Santa Monica Pier.

San Xavier del Bac Mission, Tohono O’Odham Nation (site 40 on map). Built 1783 at the northern edge of New Spain and known as the ‘White Dove of the Desert,’ it is the finest Spanish Colonial church in the U.S. and a site on the Anza National Historic Trail. Ecoregion NA1310.

Scripps Building, La Jolla, California (site 41 on map). The “old Scripps building” is the oldest building in continuous use by a oceanographic research institution, built 1909.

Sierra Bonita Ranch, Willcox, Arizona (site 42 on map). The first permanent American cattle ranch in Arizona, founded 1872. Ecoregion NA1303.

Sinclair, Upton House, Monrovia, California (site 17 on map). Principal home of the most influential American novelist in the category of social justice.

Space Flight Operations Facility, Pasadena, California (site 17 on map). The Jet Propulsion Laboratory was the primary center for unmanned exploration of the planets. The on-site 25-foot Space Simulator is also a NHL.

Star of India, Maritime Museum of San Diego. The oldest iron-hulled merchantman afloat in the world, constructed 1863.

Steedman Estate (Casa del Herrero), Santa Barbara. Built in 1925, this historic house museum and garden is the most fully developed and intact example of Spanish Colonial Revival Architecture, also called the America Country Place Era. Ecoregion NA1203.

Taliesin West, Scottsdale, Arizona (site 43 on map). The winter quarters of Frank Lloyd Wright, begun 1937, are a showcase of his ability to integrate outdoor and indoor spaces. Ecoregion NA1310.

Titan Missile Museum, Sahuarita, Arizona (site 44 on map). The only publicly accessible Titan II Intercontinental Ballistic Missile site in the nation, designed to survive a first-strike nuclear attack and to launch warheads. Ecoregion NA1310.

Tombstone Historic District and Tombstone Courthouse State Historic Park, Arizona (site 45 on map). The best preserved frontier town of the 1870s. Ecoregion NA1303.

Topaz War Relocation Center (Central Utah Relocation Center) (site 46 on map). Located west of Delta, Utah, this site housed Japanese Americans during World War II. Ecoregion NA1305.

El Tovar, Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona (site 7 on map). This rustic 1905 hotel was built by the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railroad as the focal point for the Grand Canyon resort and is still in use today.

Tumacacori Museum and Visitor Center, Tumacacori National Historical Park, Arizona (site 29 on map). Built 1939 on the site of the oldest mission in Arizona (1691), this visitor center is a fine example of Mission Revival architecture, but also it was constructed as an interpretive device so that visitors could better understand the architectural sense and history of that monument's prime resource: the Tumacacori Mission. The park is a site on the Anza National Historic Trail. Ecoregion NA1303.

Ventana Cave, Tohono O’Odham Nation (site 47 on map). This site contains archaeological deposits dating to 11,000 BCE and records interaction of humans with extinct Pleistocene mammals. Ecoregion NA1310.

Virginia City Historic District, Nevada (site 48 on map). The first silver boomtown, dating from 1859. The NHL includes Virginia City, Gold Hill, Silver City, and Dayton. Ecoregion NA1305.

Walker Pass, Bureau of Land Management, Bakersfield District, Campground and Trailhead, California (site 49 on map). The first immigrant wagon train to California came through this pass in 1843. Ecoregions NA1203 and NA1308.

Warner Springs Ranch, California (site 50 on map). Established 1844, this was a pioneering cattle ranch and served as a resting place for overland travelers crossing the southern immigrant trails. Ecoregion NA1201.

Watts Towers of Simon Rodia State Historical Park, Los Angeles. The three tall towers and six short towers are among the finest examples of naïve art and are a symbol of Los Angeles.

Wawona Hotel and Thomas Hill Studio, Yosemite National Park, California (site 1 on map). The largest and best-preserved Victorian-era hotel complex within a National Park is located in the southern part of the park. The Thomas Hill Studio was the sales room for the famous landscape painter. Ecoregion NA527.

Winona Site and Ridge Ruin, Winona, Arizona (site 51 on map). Following the eruption of Sunset Crater in 1066 CE, this site was established; it was excavated in the 1930s and 1950s and contains a ballcourt and pueblo. Ecoregion NA503 and NA1304.

Yuma Crossing National Heritage Area, Arizona and California (site 52 on map). The Colorado River crossing was significant in Spanish colonial and US westward expansion. Yuma Territorial Prison State Historic Park and Yuma Quartermaster Depot State Historic Park are in Arizona, while Fort Yuma is on Fort Yuma Quechan Indian Land across the Colorado River. Ecoregion NA1310.

II. National Historic Trails

Juan Bautista de Anza National Historic Trail, Arizona, California, Baja California, and Sonora. De Anza opened an emigrant trail from Sonora to San Francisco in 1775. Sites include Tumacacori National Historical Park (see NHL list), Tubac Presidio State Historic Park, San Xavier del Bac (see NHL list), Saguaro National Park, Casa Grande Ruins National Monument, Painted Rocks, Yuma Crossing National Heritage Area (see NHL list), Anza Borrego Desert State Park, Bautista Canyon Road, Mission San Gabriel Archangel, El Pueblo de Los Angeles,Chumash Indian Museum (north of Thousand Oaks), Santa Monica Mountains NRA, and El Presidio de Santa Barbara State Historical Park.

California National Historic Trail, California, Nevada, Utah. Nevada sites in the map area include Humboldt Sink and Fernley Ruts on the Truckee Route and Fort Churchill (see NHL list) and Mormon Station on the Carson Route. California sites include Woodford’s Station, Hope Valley, and Carson Pass, all in the Toiyabe National Forest on the Carson Route; and Little Lost Canyon and Leavitt Meadow in Toiyabe National Forest and Browder Flat, Fremont Lake, Little Emigrant Valley, Hubbs Grave Site, Relief Camp, and Burst Rock in the Emigrant Wilderness along the Walker River-Sonora Route.

Old Spanish National Historic Trail, Arizona, California, Nevada, and Utah. This trading route connected Santa Fe and Los Angeles, opened in 1829. Sites include Church Rock, Navajo National Monument, and Antelope Canyon on Navajo Nation; Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument Paria Box area, Utah; Parowan Gap Petroglyphs, UT; Mountain Meadows, UT (see NHL list); Pipe Spring National Monument, Arizona; Mojave Road in Mojave National Preserve, CA; and El Pueblo de Los Angeles, California.

Pony Express National Historic Trail, California, Nevada, and Utah. Sites include Boyd Station and Willow Springs Station in Utah; Cold Springs Station, Sand Springs Station, Fort Churchill (see NHL list), and Mormon Station in Nevada; and Woodford’s Station in California.

III. Other Nationally Designated Sites

Cabrillo National Monument, California (site 53 on map). In 1542, Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo became the first European to set foot on the west coast of the United States. Ecoregion NA1201.

Capitol Reef National Park, Utah (site 54 on map). Rock art panels can be seen on canyon walls. Ecoregion NA1304

Casa Grande Ruins National Monument, Arizona (site 55 on map). Built 650 years ago, this four-story house rises from a six-foot high earthen platform. In addition to a residence, it was also used as an astronomical observatory. Site on the Anza National Historic Trail. Ecoregion N1310.

Coronado National Memorial, Arizona (site 15 on map). Primarily a natural site, this commemorates the 1540-1542 expedition of Coronado in the western US. Ecoregion NA302.

Grand Canyon-Parashant National Monument, Arizona (site 56 on map). Contains the Nampaweap Petroglyph Site and Uinkaret Pueblo site. Ecoregion NA1304.

Ironwood Forest National Monument, Tucson BLM District, Arizona (site 57 on map). More than 200 Hohokam sites and rock art are found in this 125,000-acre area. Elevations here range from 1,800 to more than 4,200 feet. Historic areas include the Los Robles Archeological District, the Mission of Santa Ana del Chiquiburitac and the Cocoraque Butte Archeological District. Ecoregion NA1310.

Kitt Peak National Observatory and National Solar Observatory, Tohono O’Odham Nation (site 58 on map). The world’s largest collection of optical telescopes and radio telescopes operated by eight different groups affiliated with the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy. Ecoregion NA302.

Montezuma Castle National Monument, Arizona (site 59 on map). A well-preserved, five-story, 20-room ruin built 1125 to 1400. Ecoregion NA503.

Navajo National Monument, Navajo Nation (site 60 on map). Preserves the largest cliff dwellings in Arizona, dating to 1250. Ecoregion NA1304.

Pipe Spring National Monument, Arizona (site 61 on map). A Mormon settlement dating to 1863. Ecoregion NA1304.

Saguaro National Park, Arizona (site 62 on map). Petroglyphs are present on Signal Hill (west unit of the park) and are a site on the Anza NHT.

Sloan Canyon National Conservation Area, BLM Southern Nevada District (site 63 on map). The site contains 300 petroglyph panels. Ecoregion NA1308.

Tonto National Monument, Arizona (site 64 on map). Cliff dwellings were constructed 1300 to 1450 in large caves. Ecoregion NA503.

Tuzigoot National Monument, Arizona (site 65 on map). A hilltop pueblo occupied 1125 to 1450. Ecoregion NA503.

Walnut Canyon National Monument, Arizona (site 51 on map). A series of cliff dwellings built into overhangs along the canyon rim. Ecoregion NA503.

Wupatki National Monument, Arizona (site 66 on map). Hundreds of pueblo dwellings in a formerly productive farming region. Ecoregion NA1304.

IV. Other Cultural Resource Sites

Amerind Foundation, Dragoon, Arizona (site 67 on map). An archaeological research and museum facility located in Texas Canyon, Little Dragoon Mountains. Ecoregion NA1303.

Anza-Borrego Desert State Park, California. A site on the Anza Trail. Ecoregion NA1310.

Anasazi State Park Museum, Boulder, Utah (site 68 on map). Occupied from 1050 to 1200 CE. Ecoregion NA1304.

Arroyo Seco Parkway, Los Angeles, California. The first urban freeway west of the Mississippi, constructed in 1940, is a historic civil engineering landmark. Ecoregion NA1201.

Bautista Canyon Road, San Bernardino National Forest, California (site 69 on map). Connects the town of Anza with Hemet; a site on the Anza Trail. Ecoregion NA1201.

Belmont Courthouse State Historic Park, Nevada (site 70 on map). From 1876 to 1905, this courthouse served Nye County, now abandoned. Ecoregion NA1305.

Biosphere 2, University of Arizona, Oracle, Arizona (site 71 on map). From 1991 to 1994, two experiments locked people inside this artificial ‘biosphere.’ It is now managed as a climate change research facility by the University of Arizona. Ecoregion NA1310.

Black Mountain Rock Art District, BLM Barstow District, California (site 72 on map). Up to 12,000 petroglyphs. Ecoregion NA1308.

Blythe Intaglios, BLM Yuma Field Office, California (site 73 on map). Six human figures and animal figures are depicted in geoglyphs. Ecoregion NA1310.

Buckhorn Wash Rock Art Panel, BLM Price Field Office, Utah (site 74 on map). Believed to be pictographs of shamans. Ecoregion NA1304.

Calico Early Man Site, BLM Barstow Field Office, California (site 75 on map). Ecoregion NA1308.

Cerro de Trincheras, Sonora (site 76 on map). The largest trincheras site (see overview above), with terraced hills dating to 1400 CE. Ecoregion NA1310.

Chumash Painted Cave State Historic Site, Santa Barbara, California. An overhand contains multicolored paintings and drawings. Ecoregion NA1203.

Col. Allensworth State Historical Park, Earlimart, California (site 78 on map). A farming community, founded in 1908 as a town financed and governed by African Americans. Ecoregion NA801.

Colorado River Aqueduct, Arizona-California. This second major water supply canal for southern California transports water from Lake Havasu to Lake Mathews near Corona, California. Constructed in the early 20^th century, this is a civil engineering landmark. Ecoregions NA1308 and 1201.

Cucurbe, Sonora (site 79 on map). A notable petroglyph site. Ecoregion NA1310.

Eldon Pueblo, Coconino National Forest, Arizona (site 26 on map). A Sinagua site occupied from 1070 to 1275. Ecoregion NA503.

Elgin Schoolhouse State Historic Site, Nevada (site 80 on map). Served as a school from 1922 through 1967. Ecoregion NA1305.

Los Encinos State Historical Park, Los Angeles, California. A natural spring and adobe ranch house for Basque immigrant landowners and sheep ranchers. Ecoregion NA 1201.

Fisherman Intaglio, BLM Yuma Field Office, Arizona (site 81 on map). A geoglyph in the Arizona desert. Ecoregion NA1310.

Fort Pearce, BLM St. George Field Office, Utah (site 82 on map). A fort built 1866 and petroglyphs in the area. Ecoregion NA1308.

Fort Tehon State Historical Park, Lebec, California (site 83 on map). Constructed 1854 to protect and control the Sebastian Indian Reservation. Ecoregion NA1203.

Fort Verde State Historic Park, Camp Verde, Arizona (site 84 on map). The site of the military campaign against the Apache in the 1870s. Ecoregion NA503.

Fremont Indian State Park, Utah (site 85 on map). Several panels of rock art are preserved; this site was discovered during the construction of I-70. Ecoregion NA530.

Frontier Homestead State Park Museum, Cedar City, Utah (site 86 on map). Commemorates an iron-mining area in the 1850s. Ecoregion NA1305.

Grimes Point Archaeological Area, BLM Carson City District (site 87 on map). A trail winds among petroglyphs. Ecoregion NA1305.

Guadalupe Valley Wine Region, Baja California (site 88 on map). One of Mexico’s wine-producing areas to the north of Ensenada. Ecoregion NA1201.

Hidden Cave Archaeological Area, BLM Carson City District (site 87 on map). Hidden Cave was used as a stockpile for food about 4,000 years ago by early human inhabitants. Ecoregion NA1305.

Homolovi State Park, Arizona (site 89 on map). This is a center for archaeology research from the 1200s to 1300s. The Hopi consider this to be an ancestral village.

Honanki Ruin, Coconino National Forest, Arizona (site 90 on map). Preserves cliff dwellings and rock art. Ecoregion NA503.

Ivanpah Dry Lake, California (site 91 on map). The world land speed record for a wind-powered vehicle was set here in 2009. Ecoregion NA1308.

Las Vegas Mormon Fort State Historic Site, Las Vegas, Nevada. Established 1855.

Little Black Mountain Petroglyph Site, BLM Arizona Strip Field Office (site 92 on map). South of St. George, Utah, is this site with 500 petroglyphs. Ecoregion NA1308.

Los Angeles Aqueduct, California. Tapping water near Mono Lake and built from 1907 to 1913, this aqueduct system of storage reservoirs, canals, and tunnels allows water to flow downhill to southern California. A historic civil engineering landmark. Ecoregions NA527, 1310, 1203, and 1201.

Lovelock Cave, BLM Winnemucca District, Nevada (site 26 on map). Artifacts include elaborate mats and duck decoys up to 2,000 years old. Ecoregion NA1305.

Marlette Lake Water System, Nevada (site 32 on map). Tapping water in the Lake Tahoe Nevada State Park, this water system was constructed to provide water to Virginia City. Ecoregion NA527 and NA1305.

McFarland State Historic Park, Florence, Arizona (site 93 on map). An 1878 adobe brick building, used as a courthouse.

Mission San Gabriel Archangel, San Gabriel, California (site 94 on map). An 1806 church and site on Anza Trail.

Mormon Station State Historic Park, Nevada (site 95 on map). Established 1851, this is Nevada’s first permanent non-Indian settlement and a site along the California and Pony Express trails.

Mount Wilson Observatory, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Angeles National Forest, California (site 17 on map). Founded 1904 by George Hale, a historic 60-inch telescope and modern upgrades overlook Pasadena. In 1908, Hale detected the existence of magnetic fields inside sunspots. Ecoregion NA1203.

Navajo Bridge Pedestrian Bridge, Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Arizona and Navajo Nation (site 96 on map). When it was constructed in 1929, this was the highest steel arch bridge in America. It was replaced by a new bridge just downstream in 1995. Ecoregion NA1304.

Nine Mile Canyon Archaeological District, BLM Price Field Office, Utah (site 97 on map). One of the world’s highest densities of prehistoric rock art. Ecoregion NA1304.

Painted Cave, Tule River Tribal Lands (site 98 on map). Rock art pictographs painted in white, yellow, and black pigments are in a rockshelter associated with a village site. A Bigfoot pictograph is often cited by Bigfoot hunters as evidence. Ecoregion NA527 and 1202.

Painted Rock Petroglyph Site, BLM Lower Sonoran Field Office, Arizona (site 99 on map). Hundreds of petroglyphs may be viewed at this site off I-8. Ecoregion NA1310.

Palatki Heritage Site, Coconino National Forest, Arizona (site 90 on map). Preserves cliff dwellings and rock art. Ecoregion NA503.

Palomar Observatory, Cleveland National Forest, California (site 34 on map). Five telescopes are operated by the California Institute of Technology. Ecoregion NA1201.

Parowan Gap, BLM, UT (site 100 on map). Petroglyph site. Ecoregion NA1305.

Presidio de Santa Barbara State Historic Park. A military outpost built by the Spanish dates from 1782, a site on the Anza Trail.

Pueblo de Los Angeles. Western terminus of the Old Spanish Trail, a site on the Anza Trail, and a center of the old Spanish settlement.

Riordan Mansion State Historic Park, Flagstaff (site 26 on map). Built 1904, the mansion is considered to be a remarkable example of Arts and Crafts style architecture featuring a rustic exterior of log-slab siding, volcanic stone arches, and hand-split wooden shingles.

Rogers, Will, State Historic Park, Pacific Palisades (site 11 on map). Preserves the humorist’s house, horse riding facilities, Ecoregion NA1201.

Salt River Project and Theodore Roosevelt Dam, Arizona (site 64 on map). Constructed beginning 1911, the seven dams and reservoirs on the Salt and Verde Rivers provide water for Arizona. A historic civil engineering landmark. Ecoregion NA503 and 1310.

Sand Mountain Recreation Area, BLM Carson City District, Nevada (site 101 on map). Contains the Sand Springs Pony Express Station. Ecoregion NA1305.

Santo Tomas Valley, Baja California (site 102 on map). One of Mexico’s wine-producing regions to the south of Ensenada. Ecoregion NA 1201.

Santa Susana Pass State Historic Park, Chatsworth, California (site 103 on map). Site of the original stagecoach trail between Los Angeles and San Francisco. Ecoregion NA1203.

Sears Point Petroglyph Site, BLM Yuma Field Office, Arizona (site 104 on map). Ecoregion NA1310.

Spring Mountain Ranch State Park, Nevada (site 105 on map). Developed as a working ranch and luxury retreat. Part of Red Rock Canyon National Conservation Area. Ecoregion NA1308.

Sweetwater Dam, San Diego, California (site 3 on map). Constructed in 1917, this was once the tallest masonry arch dam. A historic civil engineering landmark. Ecoregion NA12101.

Tehachapi Pass Railroad, California (site 106 on map). In 1876, this railroad with a loop to gain elevation was constructed by hand and is still in use. It is considered one of the great feats of railroad engineering. Ecoregion NA1203.

Territorial Statehouse State Park Museum, Fillmore, Utah (site 107 on map). Built 1855 for a meeting of the territorial legislature, which promptly moved to Salt Lake City.

Topock Maze, BLM California Desert District, Needles, California (site 108 on map). Originally about 50 acres, this 600-year old geoglyph has been reduced in size by railroad and highway construction. A field appears to have been plowed or furrowed in a mazelike fashion. Ecoregion NA1308.

Tubac Presidio State Historic Park, Arizona (site 29 on map). A small Pima village became a mission farm, then a military installation in New Spain. Juan Bautista de Anza, commander of the presidio, led expeditions to San Francisco from this spot. Ecoreigon NA1310.

V Bar V Heritage Site, Coconino National Forest, Arizona (site 59 on map). Preserves rock art. Ecoregion NA503.

Valley of Fire State Park, Nevada (site 109 on map). Contains rock art throughout the park. Ecoregion NA1308.

Ward Charcoal Ovens State Historic Park, Nevada (site 110 on map). Six charcoal ovens. Ecoregion NA1305.

Whipple, Fred Lawrence, Observatory, Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, Coronado National Forest, Arizona (site 111 on map). Telescopes for optical and gamma ray astronomy. Ecoregion NA302.

Willow Springs Pony Express Station, Callao, Utah (site 112 on map). One of the best preserved stations, located on private land. Ecoregion NA1305.

Wolverton Historic Mill, BLM Henry Mountain Field Station, Hanksville, UT (site 113 on map). The mill was built to process mineral ores and as a sawmill. Ecoregion NA1304.

Woodford’s Station, Toiyabe National Forest, California (site 114 on map). This was a site on the Carson Route of the California Trail and a Pony Express station.

Yuha Desert, California (site 115 on map). Site of a large, abstract geoglyph. Ecoregion NA1310.

Aqueducts, Balboa, and Calico

2011-11-26T11:21:00.002-05:00

A. Map boundaries: 30 to 40 degrees North; 110 to 120 degrees West

B. Countries (States): Mexico (Baja California, Sonora), United States (Arizona, California, Nevada, Utah).

C. Part II, The Cultural Landscape Expanded

This section provides an overview of National Historic Landmarks (NHLs) and other notable historic properties in the desert southwest. Part III contains a detailed listing of all sites.

The Prehistoric Landscape

Perhaps the most controversial of the sites is the Calico Early Man Site in the Mojave Desert near Barstow, California. It was made famous by Louis S.B.Leakey, the Kenyan anthropologist who discovered much evidence of early man in Africa. From 1964 until 1972, Leakey promoted the idea that the artifacts found in the American desert were similar to artifacts found in Africa. Leakey excavated an alluvial fan and considered the artifacts found to be the result of human activity. The age of the fan was believed to be over 50,000 years old (Leakey, Simpson, and Clements 1968). Today most professionally trained archaeologists question whether the alleged stone tools were manufactured by humans. However, Friends of Calico Early Man Site continues the tradition of investigating the site for evidence of early man (site 75 on map).

The prehistoric inhabitants of the Sonoran and Mojave Deserts left behind abundant archaeological evidence of their presence. Canals, trincheras sites, and rock art are three of the more notable cultural landscapes in the region. At the Pueblo Grande Museum and Archaeological Park in Phoenix, the largest canals known from pre-Columbian North America are preserved. Modern irrigated agriculture and suburban development has largely obliterated these canal systems. However, approximately 500 km of major canals and 1600 km of smaller canals have been recorded in the Salt River Valley. These canals were largely built between 900 and 1450 CE. The extensive canal system would easily have diverted all of the available Salt River water during dry periods, suggesting that some sort of coordination or control was necessary to allocate the water among all the systems in the Salt River Valley (Masse 1981).

Trincheras sites are distinguished by their locations on a hill or mountain peak and the use of massive stone terraces or walls. At the Cerro de Trincheras site in Sonora (site 76 on map), 900 massive stone-walled terraces cover the entire north side of a hill. There was a plaza on the summit and a public events area on the lower slope. Another notable trincheras site is Cerro Prieto 35 miles northwest of Tucson. Numerous small trincheras sites dot Sonora and southern Arizona. Desert Laboratory of the University of Arizona (see site 9 on map) is built on a trincheras site.

At the Coso Mountains in California, Big and Little Petroglyph Canyons (site 4 on map) contain the most spectacular petroglyph areas in the western US, with 20,000 designs showing bighorn sheep, deer, antelope. Along the canyon walls are anthropomorphic figures showing dogs attacking sheep and people hunting sheep. Piled rock statues are ‘dummy hunters’ of bighorn sheep. Another premier rock art site is Nine Mile Canyon in Utah. This canyon holds at least 10,000 images. Recently, heavy truck traffic through a dirt road in the canyon caused concerns about damage to the rock art panels. Of special concern was the use of magnesium chloride to suppress dust. This salt may corrode the rock and damage the paintings, according to art conservators (Kloor 2008).

The Emigrant Landscape

Sites important to the emigrant experience during the 1840s through the 1870s are common in this map area. Notable NHLs are the Yuma Crossing National Heritage Area (site 52), Mountain Meadows Massacre Site in Dixie National Forest (site 31), Warner Springs Ranch in southern California (site 50), and Walker Pass (site 49), providing a way between the California Desert and the Central Valley. The Oak Grove Butterfield Stage Station in southern California (site 34) is also a NHL. Further north are sites on the California Trail and Pony Express Trail such as Fort Churchill (site 14) and Carson Pass. Early mining towns such as Virginia City (site 48) and Bodie (site 5) are well-preserved, and perhaps most famous of all, Tombstone (site 45) is the best-preserved frontier town, located in southeastern Arizona. Early Spanish settlement is commemorated through the system of missions in Arizona and California, as well as Mexican adobe houses and ranches dating from the early 1800s.

The Tourism Landscape

Sites at Bryce Canyon, Grand Canyon, and Yosemite have been designated as National Historic Landmarks because of the distinctive “‘national park rustic resort style.” Facilities at Bryce Canyon and Grand Canyon were constructed by railroads. Grand Canyon Village was the largest town developed by the National Park Service to meet thee needs of visitors and park staff. The visitor center at Tucumcori National Monument (site 29) was built in mission revival architecture to serve as an interpretive device. Balboa City Park in San Diego was constructed for the 1915 Panama-Canal Exposition and includes Spanish baroque architecture. Today it is the center of the city’s museum district. Nearby Mission Beach Roller Coaster was listed as an early 20^th century recreational development, as was the Loof Hippodrome and carousel at the Santa Monica Pier (site 11). The Hotel del Coronado near San Diego (site 8) is considered to be the most architecturally interesting luxury hotel in the U.S., and Mission Inn in Riverside (site 20) is another late 19^th century luxury hotel listed as a NHL.

The Science and Technology Landscape

Three nineteenth century sites important to the science of plant ecology are on the NHL list in Arizona. The C. Hart Merriam Base Camp on the Coconino National Forest (site 28) was where the Life Zone Concept was formulated. The Desert Botanical Laboratory west of Tucson (site 9) was where the science of plant ecology was born. At the Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff (site 26), the science of dendrochronology was born.

Sites important to astronomy are on the NHL list in Pasadena. These include the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and its on-site space simulator and the houses of some of America’s greatest astronomers, Edwin Hubble and Ellery Hale (site 17). Nearby, overlooking Pasadena, is the Mount Wilson Observatory. Also important in the unmanned exploration of space was the Pioneer Deep Space Station antenna in the California Desert (site 37). The Rogers Dry Lake at Edwards Air Force Base (site 38) has been used for aircraft flight testing since 1933 and was a landing spot for the Space Shuttle. Aircraft first broke the sound barrier here. Other important astronomical discoveries were made at the Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, where it was determined that the universe continues to expand. The tops of mountains in the sky islands of Arizona and southern California continue to attract astronomical observatories. Notable current facilities are Kitt Peak (site 58) and Whipple (site 111) Observatories in Arizona and Mount Wilson and Palomar (site 34) in California.

Large government-sponsored water works have been essential to the development and growth of the desert regions. Historic civil engineering landmarks highlight some of these facilities. The Los Angeles Aqueduct, which carries water from northern California near Mono Lake, and the Colorado River Aqueduct, which carries water from the east, are landmarks, as is the Salt River Project supplying water to central Arizona. No list of water infrastructure would be complete without including the Hoover Dam (site 22), one of the greatest achievements in hydraulic engineering.

D. Terrestrial Ecoregions

Ecoregions of the Neararctic Biome

Tropical & Subtropical Coniferous Forests

NA 302, Sierra Madre Occidental pine-oak forests. These forests occur as isolated sky islands on mountain peaks between 1500 and 3,300 m in elevation. Drier areas have chaparral and oak-grassland vegetation. The region is known for endemic birds such as the thick-billed parrot, tufted jay, eared quetzal, and green-striped brush finch; 22 endemic reptiles; and 12 endemic amphibians. The mountain air currents are a major migratory pathway for the monarch butterfly. Found in Arizona and Sonora.

Temperate Coniferous Forests

NA 503, Arizona Mountains forests. Ponderosa pine forests predominate in open park-like areas. Above 2000 m are Douglas-fir and spruce. Found in Arizona.

NA515, Great Basin montane forests. At high elevations, forests of white fir, limber pine, and bristlecone pine are found at timberline. Found in California and Nevada.

NA527, Sierra Nevada forests. The most diverse temperate coniferous forests on Earth support numerous species of pine and 75 giant sequoia groves. Found in California and Nevada.

NA530, Wasatch and Uinta montane forests. Ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, subalpine fir, and Gambel oak are found in sparse, arid forests on Utah mountaintops. The southernmost extensions of this area shown on the map tend to be high plateaus. Found in Utah.

Temperate Grasslands, Savannas and Shrublands

NA801, California Central Valley grasslands. Perennial bunchgrass ecosystem and oak-grass savanna grade into desert grasslands in the south. Extensive mass flowerings of California poppy and other wildflowers are characteristic. Vernal pools are found in flooded depressions. Found in California.

Mediterranean Forests, Woodland, and Scrub

NA 1202, California interior chaparral and woodlands. A zone of oak woodland and chaparral rings the Central Valley grasslands. Found in California.

Deserts & Xeric Shrublands

NA 1301, Baja California desert. The mountains, plains, and dunes host xeric scrub of cacti, Ambrosia, and Erodium. In low humid areas epiphytes are present. Endemic mammals include the San Quintin kangaroo rat and Baja California rock squirrel. Found on the western side of the Baja California peninsula in Baja California.

NA 1303, Chihuahuan desert. This isolated desert and grassland is known for prairie dog, bison, and antelope. The dominant plant is creosote bush, along with tarbush and acacia. There are up to 1,000 endemic plant species, including one-fifth of the world’s cacti. Found in deep valleys reaching into the mountains of eastern Sonora and southeastern Arizona.

NA 1304, Colorado Plateau shrublands. Characterized by extensive and sparse pinyon pine and juniper woodlands. Found in Arizona, Nevada, and Utah.

NA1305, Great Basin shrub steppe. Characterized by sagebrush, saltbush and winterfat. Called a shrub steppe because of the absence of grasses. Found in California, Nevada, and Utah.

NA1308, Mojave Desert. Characterized by creosote bush and Joshua trees. Found in Arizona, California, Nevada, and Utah.

NA 1310, Sonoran Desert. The desert most famous for the saguaro cactus also contains creosote bush, ironwood, palo verde and other cacti in drier areas. Found in Arizona, Baja California, California, and Sonora.

E. World Heritage Sites

Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona. Terrestrial ecoregions NA503 and NA1304. The Tusayan ruin, including a small pueblo site, is on the South Rim. National Historic Landmarks include the four Mary Jane Colter Buildings, Grand Canyon Depot, Grand Canyon Lodge, Grand Canyon National Park Operations Building, Grand Canyon Power House, Grand Canyon Village, and El Tovar Hotel (site 7 on map).

Islands and Protected Areas of the Gulf of California (IPAGC). This includes nine protected area units, two of which are within the map area. The two units shown on the map are:

Islands of the Gulf of California Flora and Fauna Reserve (IGCFFR), Baja California and Sonora. This includes 232 islands, nine of which fall within the map area. Terrestrial ecoregion NA 1310; marine ecoregion 60.

Upper Gulf of California and Colorado Delta Biosphere Reserve, Baja California and Sonora. Includes the former outlet of the Colorado River. Terrestrial ecoregion NA1310; marine ecoregion 60.

Yosemite National Park, California. The Ahwahnee Resort Hotel, Leconte Lodge, and Ranger’s Club in Yosemite Valley, the Wawona Hotel and Thomas Hill Studio in Wawona, and Parsons Memorial Lodge in Tuolumne Meadows are National Historic Landmarks (site 1 on map). Ecoregion NA527.

F. Further Reading

Durham, Michael S. 1990. The Smithsonian Guide to Historic America: The Desert States. Stewart, Tabori and Chang, New York.

Garfinkel, Alan P. 2006. Paradigm Shifts, Rock Art Studies, and the “Coso Sheep Cult” of Eastern California. North American Archaeologist 27:203-244.

Kloor, Keith. 2008. Dust Storm Rising Over Threat to Famed Rock Art in Utah. Science 319:394.

Leakey, L.S.B., Ruth de Ette Simpson, and Thomas Clements. 1968. Archaeological Excavations in the Calico Mountains, California: Preliminary Report. Science 160:1022-1023.

Logan, William Bryant and Susan Ochshorn. 1989. The Smithsonian Guide to Historic America: The Pacific States. Stewart, Tabori and Chang, New York.

Masse, W. Bruce. 1981. Prehistoric Irrigation Systems in the Salt River Valley, Arizona. Science 214:408-415.

Noble, John et al. 2010. Mexico. Lonely Planet Publications.

Pueblo Grande Museum and Archaeological Park. http://phoenix.gov/recreation/arts/museums/pueblo/index.html (accessed October 29, 2011).

UNESCO-Man and the Biosphere Reserves Directory. http://www.unesco.org/mabdb/br/brdir/directory/database.asp (accessed 5/30/11).

Warner Springs Ranch. http://www.warnersprings.com/history.cfm (accessed 11/1/11)

World Heritage List. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list (accessed 5/22/11).

Coso, Pueblo Grande, and Trincheras part 1

2011-10-31T21:12:00.001-04:00

Map boundaries: 30 to 40 degrees North; 110 to 120 degrees West

Country (State): Mexico (Baja California, Sonora), United States (Arizona, California, Nevada, Utah).

Part I of the Cultural Landscape

At the Pueblo Grande Museum and Archaeological Park in Phoenix, the largest canals known from pre-Columbian North America are preserved. Modern irrigated agriculture and suburban development has largely obliterated these canal systems. However, approximately 500 km of major canals and 1600 km of smaller canals have been recorded in the Salt River Valley. These canals were largely built between 900 and 1450 CE. The extensive canal system would easily have diverted all of the available Salt River water during dry periods, suggesting that some sort of coordination or control was necessary to allocate the water among all the systems in the Salt River Valley.

Trincheras sites are distinguished by their locations on a hill or mountain peak and the use of massive stone terraces or walls. At the Cerro de Trincheras site in Sonora, 900 massive stone-walled terraces cover the entire north side of a hill. There was a plaza on the summit and a public events area on the lower slope. Another notable trincheras site is Cerro Prieto 35 miles northwest of Tucson. Numerous small trincheras sites dot Sonora and southern Arizona.

At the Coso Mountains in California, Big and Little Petroglyph Canyons contain the most spectacular petroglyph areas in the western US, with 20,000 designs showing bighorn sheep, deer, antelope. Along the canyon walls are anthropomorphic figures showing dogs attacking sheep and people hunting sheep. Piled rock statues are ‘dummy hunters’ of bighorn sheep.

(to be continued next month)

Ecoregions of the Neararctic Biome in the map area:

302, Sierra Madre Occidental pine-oak forests

503, Arizona Mountains forests

515, Great Basin montane forests

526, Sierra Juarez and San Pedro Martir pine-oak forests

527, Sierra Nevada forests

530, Wasatch and Uinta montane forests

1201, California coastal sage and chaparral

1202, California interior chaparral and woodlands

1203, California montane chaparral and woodlands

1301, Baja California desert

1303, Chihuahuan desert

1304, Colorado Plateau shrublands

1305, Great Basin shrub steppe

1308, Mojave Desesrt

1310, Sonoran Desert

World Heritage Sites

Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona. Terrestrial ecoregions NA503 and NA1304.

Islands and Protected Areas of the Gulf of California (IPAGC). This includes nine protected area units, two of which are within the map area. The two units shown on the map are:

Islands of the Gulf of California Flora and Fauna Reserve (IGCFFR), Baja California and Sonora. This includes 232 islands, nine of which fall within the map area. Terrestrial ecoregion NA 1310; marine ecoregion 60.
Upper Gulf of California and Colorado Delta Biosphere Reserve, Baja California and Sonora. Includes the former outlet off the Colorado River. Terrestrial ecoregion NA1310; marine ecoregion 60.

Yosemite National Park, California. The Ahwahnee resort hotel, Leconte Lodge, and Ranger’s Club in Yosemite Valley and the Wawona Hotel and Thomas Hill Studio in Wawona are National Historic Landmarks. Ecoregion NA527.

Fang, Mei, and Shennongjia

2011-09-05T21:44:00.002-04:00

Part II of Warm Temperate China

I. Map Focus Area: 30 to 40 degrees North; 110 to 120 degrees East

II. Countries (Provinces or Districts): China (Anhui, Beijing Municipality, Chongqing Municipality, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Inner Mongolia, Jiangsu, Liaoning, Shandong, Shanxi, Shaanxi, Tianjin Municipality, and Zhejiang).

III. Overview of the Paleontological Landscape

Prior to the dinosaur extinction at the end of the Cretaceous Period 65 million years ago, there was an even larger mass extinction, at the end of the Permian Period. The best uninterrupted Permian-Triassic marine interval found in the world is at Mei Mountain, just west of Tai Lake in Zhejiang province. This extinction event eliminated 50 percent of marine families, 96 percent of marine invertebrates, and decreased terrestrial reptilian faunas. It was originally thought that the extinction event might be related to volcanism at the Siberian traps to the north of China (Clark et al. 1986; Reme et al. 1995). However, the end-Permian boundary sediments at Meishan have metallic grains condensed from an impact-generated vapor cloud. These grains are present from the South Pole to the Equator, where China was located at the time. Thus, there is evidence that the two largest extinctions, Cretaceous-Tertiary and Permian-Triassic, were caused by catastrophic impacts (Basu et al. 2003). Dating of ash beds at Mei Mountain have provided a precise date of 252.6 million years ago for the mass extinction (Mundil et al. 2004).

The beginning of the age of dinosaurs, the Triassic period, is evident at Majia Mountain north of Chao Lake in Anhui. Here is the mother lode of fossils from marine reptiles—icthyosaurs, plesiosaurs and mosasaurs. Icthyosaurs and pleiosaurs were warm-blooded, while mosasaurs were cold-blooded (Stone 2010).

In 1993, floodwaters in the Xixia County area of southwestern Henan uncovered thousands of dinosaur eggs which were laid during the Cretaceous (Flam 1993). Some eggs were up to 16 inches long (Holden 1993). Today fossil eggs may be viewed at the Xixia Dinosaur Remains Park and Museum, which features a tunnel into the hillside to expose eggs which may be viewed embedded in the ceiling (Hone 2009). Many of the eggs contain embryos, which have been analyzed for developmental age. Most of the embryos were at least two-thirds of the way through development at the time they were fossilized. It is likely that the babies came out the eggs able to chase down prey and consume suitable plants (Pennisi 2004).

At Zhucheng Dinosaur Geopark in Shandong, a large and rich fossil area for large dinosaurs has been found. Specimens of duck-billed, horned, and tyrannosaurs are evident. Zhucheng is now called the Chinese ‘dinosaur city’ (Branigan 2011).

At Shanwang National Geology Park in Shandong, sedimentary rocks provide fossil evidence of 500 species, including plants, insects, fish, spiders, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. It is believed to be the world’s richest Miocene Epoch fossil locality and has been preserved as a park. The Shanwang Fossil Museum preserves 10,000 specimens.

In southern Jiangsu province, fissures in limestone at Shanghuang have provided fossils of middle Miocene mammals in addition to early primates (Rossie Xijun and Beard 2006). The small primate Eosimias is believed to bridge the gap between the lower primates and higher primates such as monkeys, apes, and humans. Other Eosimias fossils have been found at Yuangqu on the Yellow River in Shanxi province (Beard et al. 1996).

The fossils of Peking Man, now known as Homo erectus, were found in 1929 at Zoukoudian, a World Heritage Site 50 km southwest of Beijing. The cave-riddled hills yielded 200 bones before 1937, in strata that are 680,000 to 780,000 years old (Stone 2009). There is some evidence that bones were burned, although it is disputed whether the inhabitants were intentionally using fire (Wu 1999). The fossils and artifacts such as rudimentary tools vanished following the Japanese invasion in 1937.

The focus area is the home of ginkgo trees, the preeminent living fossil. Distinctive ginkgo leaves are common fossils in sediments of Jurassic and Cretaceous age. Living trees have been cultivated in China since at least 1100 CE, and botanists dispute whether the Chinese populations are wild populations. One possibly wild population in the focus area is at Tianmu Biosphere Reserve on the border between Anhui and Zhejiang. Another possibly wild population is at Shennongjia Biosphere Reserve in Hubei.

IV. Overview of the Natural Landscape

The focus area between 30 and 40 degrees latitude makes the transition between warm temperate evergreen forests in the south and dry grasslands in the northwest. The dense human population has impacted this landscape for thousands of years, but many valuable near-natural landscapes remain. China has embraced the geopark concept and has established reserves in mountainous areas. The Fang Mountain Geopark consists of eight units in Beijing Municipality and Hebei, including the Zhoukoudian World Heritage Site, caves and gorges. Funiu Mountain Geopark is the transition between temperate deciduous and evergreen broadleaf forests. Other geoparks are in Anhui, Henan and Shandong. Mountain nature reserves across warm temperate China are important bird areas for pheasants and pittas. Saline meadows along the coast and freshwater wetlands along the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers provide habitat for waterbirds such as the red-crowned crane, geese, and shorebirds. Biosphere reserves at Funiu (Baotianman) Shennongjia, and Tianmu protect rare plants and birds in mountain settings.

V. Overview of Environmental Issues

Perhaps the most well-known infrastructure project is the Three Gorges Dam, which impounds the Yangtze River in Hubei and is now the world’s largest hydropower project, with a reservoir surface area of 1080 square km. The Three Gorges Dam and the Gezhouba Dam were a barrier to the Yangtze finless porpoise, Chinese river dolphin, and Chinese paddlefish, the latter two of which are now believed to be extinct. The Yangtze soft shell turtle is extinct in the wild. The last paddlefish was caught in 2003 and the last sighting of the river dolphin was in 2004 Stone 2011a). Reservoir issues include algae blooms, sedimentation, and schistosomiasis or snail fever. China is embarking on an ambitious project to improve water quality (Stone 2011b).

Water from the reservoir may eventually be linked to another large infrastructure project, the South to North Water Transfer Project. The eastern and central routes will traverse the map focus area. The eastern route is 1150 km long, has 23 pumping stations, and follows the general path of the Grand Canal, which is being widened and deepened. The diversion is at Yangzhou on the Yangtze River. The flow will pass under the Yellow River in a tunnel. The diversion represents a five percent reduction in Yangtze River flow (Stone and Jia 2006). The eastern route has been slowed by the need to clean up water before it is diverted north (Hao 2007). The central route currently begins at the Danjiankou Dam on the Han River in Hubei and will traverse north for 1,000 km through Henan and Hebei to Beijing. The central route will require 1,774 structures to channel the water through Henan and Hebei. Approximately 16 percent of the Han River flow is to be diverted. A southern extension will extend to the Yangtze River below Three Gorges Dam (Stone and Jia 2006, Wong 2011).

The South to North project is intended to address the severe water shortages which exist in the North China Plain, an area encompassing the Beijing and Tianjin municipalities. The rapid growth of the cities of Beijing and Tianjin, together with agricultural irrigation through intensive groundwater pumping in the Hai River basin, has led to water shortages (Li 2010, Wong 2011).

During the past three decades, Tai Lake in the southeastern portion of the focus area has become famous for its pollution, especially for its blue-green algae blooms. During the summer the shallow lake turns pea green. The blue-green algae thrive on a mix of industrial, farm, and municipal effluent. Since a disastrous bloom in 2007, hundreds of small chemical and manufacturing plants have been forced to relocate, and strict effluent controls were instituted (Stone 2011c). The goal is to restore the fisheries in the lake as well as the suitability for a drinking water source (Hao and Stone 2010).

In the Yellow River valley of Shandong, one fifth of China’s wheat and a smaller percentage of its corn are produced (Postel 2006). High nitrogen fertilizer input and low-nitrogen use efficiency have resulted in soil acidification (Guo et al. 2010).

VI. Terrestrial Ecoregions of the Paleoarctic (PA) Biome

Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forests of the Paleoarctic Biome

PA 101. Guizhou Plateau broadleaf and mixed forests. This cool, cloudy realm of limestone pinnacles is dominated by plants in the oak, laurel, and tea families. Other common plants include hemlock, maple, rhododendron, Prunus and fir. Animals include macaques, monkeys, tigers, Sika deer, and leopards. Found in Chongqing Municipality, Hubei, and Hunan on the map.

Temperate Broadleaf and Mixed Forests

PA 411. Central China loess plateau mixed forest. This ecoregion developed on wind-blown loess 200 m thick and is a transition from the deciduous temperate forests to the steppes and deserts to the north and west. The forest is a mixed broadleaf deciduous forest of oak, birch, maple, and linden. Found in Beijing Municipality, Hebei, Henan, Shanxi, and Shaanxi in the map focus area.

PA 415. Changjiang Plain evergreen forests. The broad Yangtze or Chang Jiang (Long River) valley downstream of the Three Gorges originally contained native evergreen oak and laurel forests. Found in Anhui, Henan, Hubei, Jiangsu, and Zhejiang within the map focus area.

PA 417. Daba Mountains evergreen forests. Mixed evergreen oaks and tree mints, along with pines are common. Shennongjia in western Hubei has old growth forests. It is known for the rare Davidia tree. Found in Chongqing Municipality, Hubei, and Shaanxi in the map focus area.

PA 424. Huang He Plain mixed forests. This mostly deciduous forest area is characterized by oak, elm, pistachio, and pines. Found in Anhui, Beijing Municipality, Hebei, Henan, Jiangsu, Shandong, Shanxi, Shaanxi, and Tianjin Municipality in the map focus area.

PA 430. Northeast China Plain deciduous forests. Deciduous forests found here are a mixture of hardwoods and conifers, including oaks,maples, elm, ash, and pine. Found in Liaoning in the northeastern corner of the map area.

PA 434. Qin Ling Mountains deciduous forests. Found in Henan, Hubei, and Shaanxi in the map area. A biologically rich deciduous forest of oak, elm, walnut, maple, and pines. To the west of the map area are panda preserves. Found in Henan, Hubei, and Shaanxi in the focus area.

Temperate Grasslands, Savannas, and Shrublands

PA 813. Mongolian-Manchurian grassland. Flat to rolling grasslands provide habitat for wild ungulates and are used for sheep and goat grazing. Found in Hebei, Inner Mongolia and Shanxi in the map focus area.

Flooded Grasslands and Savannas

PA 902. Bohai Sea saline meadow. Made of sediments in the Yellow and Luan River Deltas, these areas are dominated by goosefoot and grasses. They are mostly used for rice and aquaculture, with natural areas providing habitat for Saunders gull and red-crowned crane. Found in Hebei, Shandong, and Tianjin Municipality in the map area.

PA 908. Yellow Sea saline meadow. The delta of the Huai River consists of saline meadows dominated by goosefoot and grasslands. About 40 percent of the wild population of red-crowned crane winters here. Some areas are used for shrimp aquaculture. Found in Jiangsu in the map area.

Montane Grasslands and Shrublands

PA 1013, Ordos Plateau Steppe. Scrub vegetation with some desertification from heavy grazing. Found in Inner Mongolia, Shanxi, and Shaanxi in the map area.

VII. Freshwater Ecoregions

Northern Asia Region, Temperate Floodplain Rivers and Wetlands

635. Huang He Great Bend. Includes Inner Mongolia province on map.

636. Lower Huang He. Includes Beijing and Tianjin municipalities and Hebei, Henan, Shandong, Shaanxi, and Shanxi provinces on map.

Southern Asia Region, Temperate Floodplain Rivers and Wetlands

766. Lower Yangtze. The Yangtze and tributaries upriver to Three Gorges, including Huai River, Weishan Lake, and Dan River drainages. Includes Anhui, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, and provinces on map. The Yangtze has 378 fish species, including 162 that are endemic (Stone 2011a).

Southern Asia Region, Temperate Upland Rivers

765. Middle Yangtze. Includes Three Gorges area of Chongqing Municipality and western Hubei province on map.

VIII. Marine Ecoregions

Temperate Northern Pacific Realm, Cold Temperate Northwest Pacific Province

50. Yellow Sea. Includes Yellow Sea and Bo Gulf on map.

IX. World Heritage Sites (see Part I for more cultural sites)

Huang (Yellow) Mountain, Anhui. Renowned for its magnificent scenery, Huang Mountain inspired art and literature throughout Chinese history. Scenery includes rocky peaks, forests of stone pillars, and waterfalls, all in a densely forested landscape of evergreen moist forest below 1,100 m and deciduous forest from 1100 to 1800 m. Huang is also in the world network of geoparks for its natural landscape and is an Important Bird Area for greater spotted eagle and brown-chested jungle flycatcher. Ecoregion 415.

Song Mountain, Henan. The central Taoist sacred mountain of China is associated with the concept of the center of heaven and earth, The site consists of eight units containing temples, pagodas, an academy, and an observatory. Cypress trees on the site are believed to be 4500 years old. Song Mountain is in the world network of Geoparks. Ecoregion PA424.

Great Wall, Hebei, Shanxi, and Shaanxi. The world’s largest military structure was built from 220 BC to 1600 AD and served a single strategic purpose for 2,000 years. Part of the Fang Mountain Geopark in Hebei. Ecoregions 411, 813, and 1013.

Zhoukoudian, Beijing Municipality. The fossils of Peking Man, now known as Homo erectus, were found in 1929 at this site 50 km southwest of Beijing. The cave-riddled hills yielded 200 bones before 1937, in strata that are 680,000 to 780,000 years old (Stone 2009). There is some evidence that bones were burned, although it is disputed whether the inhabitants were intentionally using fire (Wu 1999). The fossils and artifacts such as rudimentary tools vanished following the Japanese invasion in 1937. Ecoregions 411 and 424.

X. Ramsar Sites

Yancheng National Nature Reserve, Jiangsu. Also a Biosphere Reserve. At least one-half of the world’s population of red-crowned crane uses the grass and sedge marshes and wetlands of this vast coastal wetland. The nature reserve also provides habitat for Oriental white stork, swan goose, Baikel teal, white-naped crane, Dalmatian pelican, Baer’s pochard, Saunder’s gull, Pere David’s deer, and black-faced spoonbill. Ecoregion PA 908.

XI. Man and the Biosphere Reserves

Baotianman, Henan. This area contains mixed deciduous and evergreen conifer forest with oaks, poplars, and Rhododendron. It is known for medicinial plant and tea from native plants. The biosphere reserve is part of the Funiu Mountain geopark. Ecoregion PA434.

Shennongjia, Hubei. This mixed deciduous-evergreen forest contains oaks, conifers, and bamoo forests interspersed with agriculture and tea plantations. There are 2,762 species of plants. The medicinal species provide the nickname of ‘Natural Medicinal Park.’ It also preserves habitat for the golden monkey and is an Important Bird Area for Reeve’s pheasant and white-eared night heron. Ecoregion PA417.

Tianmu Mountain, Zhejiang. This mixed forest of evergreen and deciduous trees protects 35 species of rare plants including Katsura, Chinese tulip, Yulan magnolia, cycads, and Liriodendron. Ancient pines and the cloud leopard are found here. It is an Important Bird Area for Elliot’s pheasant and fairy pitta. Tianmu is also known as the home of ginkgo trees. Ecoregion PA 415.

Yancheng. See description under Ramsar sites above.

XII. Global Network of Geoparks

Fang Mountain, Beijing Municipality and Hebei. This geopark includes eight sites south of Beijing that are paleontological and karst landform sites in Ecoregion PA411. In the Fanshan District are

(1) Zhoukoudian (see World Heritage Sites)

(2) Shihua (Stone Flower) Cave

(3) Shi Du (Ten Ferries) Scenic Area

(4) Shangfang Mountain Scenic Area

(5) Shenglian Mountain Scenic Area

To the West of Beijing is

(6) Baihua Mountain Natural Scenic Area, famous for flowers. Baihua Mountain is also an Important Bird Area for grey-sided thrush.

To the southwest in Hebei is

(7) Yesanpo Baili Canyon, consisting of three deep canyons

(8) Baishi Mountain National Geological Park, with waterfalls and gorges and a section of the Great Wall.

Funiu Mountain, Henan. Ecoregion PA434. This park includes the Baotianman Biosphere Reserve and the dinosaur fossil egg site in Xixia. Forests in this Important Bird Area provide habitat for greater spotted eagle, eastern imperial eagle, and Reeve’s pheasant. Ecoregion PA434.

Huang Mountain, Anhui. See entry under World Heritage Sites.

Song Mountain, Henan. See entry under World Heritage Sites.

Tai Mountain, Shandong. See entry under World Heritage Sites.

Wang Wu Mountain and Daimei Mountain, Henan. This geopark encompasses the gorges along the Yellow River between Luoyang and Jiyuan. Ecoregion PA424.

Yuntai Geopark, Henan. This area is characterized by hanging springs and waterfalls, gorges, and sheer rock walls. Ecoregion PA411

XIII. Important Bird Areas

Baihua Mountain Nature Reserve, Beijing Municipality. See entry under Fang Mountain Geopark.

Baiyangdian, Hebei. Ecoregion PA411.

Beidai River Wetlands, Hebei. Used by migrating cranes, gulls, and songbirds, which rest on headlands protruding from the coastline, this area is an IBA for Chinese egret, Baikal teal, Siberian crane, great bustard, and black stork. Ecoregion PA411.

Beidagang Nature Reserve, Tianjin Municipality. An IBA for Oriental white stork, red-crowned crane, and swan goose. Ecoregion PA411.

Binzhou Coastal Islands, Shandong. An IBA for great bustard. Ecoregion PA902.

Caizi and Wuchang Lakes, Anhui. These and other lakes nearby make up the Anqing Wetlands IBA, which provides habitat for Oriental white stork, swan goose, hooded crane, and Eurasian spoonbill. Ecoregion PA415.

Chen Lake, Hubei. An IBA for Dalmatian pelican, Oriental white stork, lesser white-fronted goose, and Baikal teal. Ecoregion PA415.

Dongzhai Nature Reserve, Henan. An IBA for Reeve’s pheasant and fairy pitta. Ecoregion PA415.

Funiu Mountain Nature Reserve, Henan. See entry under World Network of Geoparks.

Gaoyou Lake, Jiangsu. An IBA for Dalmatian pelican, Oriental white stork, swan goose, and black-faced spoonbill. Ecoregion PA415.

Guanyang, Chongqing. An IBA for Reeve’s pheasant. Ecoregion PA417.

Guniujiang Nature Reserve, Anhui. An IBA for Elliot’s pheasant and brown-chested jungle flycatcher. Ecoregion PA415.

Heijin Nature Reserve, Shanxi. Wetlands in this IBA provide habitat for common crane. Ecoregion PA411.

Heyang wetlands, Shaanxi. An IBA for Oriental white stork, Eastern imperial eagle, red-crowned crane, great bustard, great egret, and whooper swan. Ecoregions PA 411 and PA 424.

Hou River Nature Reserve, Hubei. Forests provide an IBA for Reeve’s pheasant. Ecoregion PA101.

Huang Mountain, Anhui. See entry under World Heritage Sites.

Huangfu Mountain Nature Reserve, Anhui. An IBA for fairy pitta. Ecoregion PA415.

Huanglong Mountain, Shaanxi. An IBA for brown-eared pheasant. Ecoregion PA 424.

Laizhou Bay, Shandong. An IBA for black-bellied plover, lesser sand plover, and bar-tailed godwit. Ecoregion PA902.

Huping Mountain Nature Reserve, Hunan. An IBA for Reeve’s pheasant, brown-chested jungle flycatcher, and silver oriole. Ecoregion PA101.

Jigong Mountain Nature Reserve, Henan. Forests provide an IBA for Reeve’s pheasant and fairy pitta. Ecoregion PA415.

Kaifeng Liuyuankou Nature Reserve, Henan. An IBA for Oriental white stork, lesser white-fronted goose, swan goose, and Baikal teal. Ecoregion PA424.

Li Mountain Nature Reserve, Shanxi. An IBA for brown-eared pheasant. Ecoregions PA 411 and PA424.

Lianyungang saltworks, Jiangsu. An IBA for black-faced spoonbill, spotted redshank, marsh sandpiper, and great knot. Ecoregion PA424.

Longgan Lake Nature Reserve, Hubei. An IBA for Oriental white stork, swan goose, lesser white-fronted goose, and Baikal teal. Ecoregion PA415.

Luan River Estuary, Hebei. An IBA for Saunder’s gull. Ecoregions PA411 and PA902.

Luju coastal mudflat, Tianjin Municipality. An IBA for relict gull. Ecoregion PA902.

Luya Mountain Nature Reserve, Shanxi. An IBA for brown-eared pheasant. Ecoregions PA 411 and PA813.

Mengjin Yellow River Nature Reserve, Henan. An IBA for Oriental white stork, swan goose, great bustard, and common crane. Ecoregion PA 424.

Nansi Lake Nature Reserve, Shandong. An IBA for swan goose, lesser white-fronted goose, Baikal teal, scaly-sided merganser, and great bustard. Ecoregion PA 424.

Nandagang Marshes Nature Reserve, Hebei. Ecoregion PA902.

Pangquangou Nature Reserve, Shanxi. An IBA for swan goose, brown-eared pheasant, and greater spotted eagle. Ecoregions PA 411 and PA 1013.

Qilihai Nature Reserve, Tianjin Municipality. An IBA for Oriental white stork, great bustard, and red-crowned crane. Ecoregions PA411 and PA 902.

Qingliangfeng Nature Reserve, Anhui and Zhejiang. An IBA for Elliot’s pheasant and brown-chested jungle flycatcher. Ecoregion PA415.

Rizhao coastal wetlands and islands, Shandong. An IBA for swan goose and red-crowned crane. Ecoregion PA424.

Sanmenxia Kuqu Nature Reserve, Henan. An IBA for swan goose, lesser white-fronted goose, Baer’s pochard, red-crowned crane, and whooper swan. Ecoregion PA424.

Shaobo Lake, Jiangsu. . An IBA for Dalmatian pelican, Oriental white stork, swan goose, and black-faced spoonbill. Ecoregion PA415.

Shengjin Lake Nature Reserve, Anhui. An IBA for Oriental white stork, swan goose, lesser white-fronted goose, Baikal teal, and Baer’s pochard. Ecoregion PA415.

Shennongjia Biosphere Reserve, Hubei. See description under biosphere reserves.

Shijiu Lake Nature Reserve, Anhui. An IBA for Oriental white stork, swan goose, lesser white-fronted goose, Baikal teal, and great bustard. Ecoregion PA415.

Shishankou Reservoir, Henan. An IBA in southern Henan providing wetlands for Oriental white stork and swan goose. Ecoregion PA 415.

Sihong Nature Reserve, Jiangsu. An IBA for Oriental white stork, swan goose, Baikal teal, great bustard, and white-naped crane. Ecoregion PA424.

Taihang Mountain Macaque Nature Reserve, Henan. Wetlands provide habitat for waterbirds and the area is an IBA for Baikal teal, Baer’s pochard, and lesser kestrel. Ecoregion PA 411.

Tianlong Mountain Nature Reserve, Shanxi. An IBA for brown-eared pheasant. Ecoregion PA411.

Tianma Nature Reserve, Anhui. This is an IBA in the Dabie Mountains for Reeve’s pheasant and fairy pitta. Ecoregion PA 415.

Tianmu Mountain, Zhejiang. See description under Biosphere Reserves.

Tuanbowa Nature Reserve, Tianjin Municipality. An IBA for Oriental white stork, great bustard, and red-crowned crane. Ecoregion PA411.

Weinan Sanhe, Shaanxi. An IBA for Baikal teal, red-crowned crane, great bustard, and common crane. Ecoregion PA411.

Wulu Mountain Nature Reserve, Shanxi. An IBA for brown-eared pheasant. Ecoregion PA411.

Xiaruyue Reservoir, Shanxi. An IBA for eagles and black stork. Ecoregion PA 411.

Xiaowutai Mountain Nature Reserve, Hebei. An IBA for brown-eared pheasant. Ecoregion PA 411.

Yancheng Nature Reserve, Jiangsu. See entry under Ramsar sites.

Yaoluoping Nature Reserve, Anhui. This IBA in the Dabie Mountains is designated for the Reeve’s pheasant and fairy pitta. Ecoregion PA415.

Yellow River Delta Nature Reserve, Shandong. Wetlands and grasslands provide an IBA for Oriental white stork, Saunder’s gull, great bustard, scaly-sided merganser, white-naped crane, and Nordmann’s greenshank. Ecoregion PA902.

Yubei Nature Reserve, Henan. An IBA for Oriental white stork, Dalmatian pelican, swan goose, and lesser white-fronted goose. Ecoregion PA411.

Yuhan Liangzhu, Zhejiang. Ecoregion PA415.

Yuncheng Swan Nature Reserve, Shanxi. Wetlands provide habitat for whooper swan and Oriental white stork. Ecoregion PA424.

Zipeng Mountain National Forest Park, Anhui. An IBA for fairy pitta. Ecoregion PA415.

XIV. References

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Grand Canal, Longmen, and Tai Mountain

2011-08-23T23:20:00.003-04:00

Grand water diversions, 100,000 Buddhist sculptures, and sacred mountains

Part I of Warm Temperate China

I. Map boundaries: 30 to 40 degrees North; 110 to 120 degrees East

II. Country (Provinces and Municipalities): China (Anhui, Beijing Municipality, Chongqing Municipality, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Inner Mongolia, Jiangsu, Liaoning, Shandong, Shanxi, Shaanxi, Tianjin Municipality, and Zhejiang).

III. Overview of the Cultural Landscape, or a History of China in 25 Sites

Because the ecoregions of central China are human-dominated, it appears appropriate to describe the cultural history from an ecological standpoint. It is evident that there are profound connections between the natural and cultural landscapes of central China. The tour begins with the flood-prone Yellow River (Huang) as it exits the mountains, where catastrophic natural events influenced patterns of population movement at Sanyangzhuang. It continues with religious sites such as Longmen, where limestone caves provided a landscape for art achievement, and includes the limestone mountains, whose pinnacles and precipitous topography provided sacred cultural landscapes. It ends with the tombs of emperors, which are designed to indicate harmony with the natural landscape. There are 25 sites which I have chosen to provide a whirlwind orientation tour. Additional sites are listed in the World Heritage listing and other site listings which follow.

Site 1. Erlitou, Henan. Around the middle of the second millennium BCE, Chinese civilization is believed to have been founded in the fertile agricultural plains of the middle Yellow River area of Henan. China’s founding dynasty is believed to be the Xia dynasty. The archaeological site of Erlitou, on the Luo River between Luoyang and Zhengzhou, may have been its capital. Erlitou had a central walled palace and street network. A section of road with wagon tracks provides evidence for wheeled vehicles (Lawler 2009). Even earlier settlements have been found in Liangzhu, Zhejiang, just to the south of the map area.

While current archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest millet and rice harvest took place to the west and south of the map area, it was in central China, in the lower Yellow and Yangtze River valleys, that domestication of these grains led to a flourishing civilization. The earliest rice and millet seeds did not remain attached to the stem. They drop as soon as they are mature. Domestication was a process of changing the predominant forms of these plants to ones whose seeds remained and could be harvested and stored by farmers. The domestication process is believed to have been gradual, with cross-fertilization among cultivated and wild varieties taking place in many localities. Eventually, the domesticated plants become totally dependent upon the farmer for reproduction. The domestication process continues today with modern plant breeding (Jones and Liu 2009).

Site 2. Yin, Henan. Following the Xia period represented by Erlitou, the Shang Dynasty sites of Zhengzhou (Erligang section) and Yin are also located in modern-day Henan. Yin is considered the first capital of early China, from 1300 to 1406 BCE. The World Heritage-listed Bronze Age site has royal tombs and palaces. Oracle bones discovered at Yin provide evidence of a well-developed writing system. More than 10,000 pieces of inscribed oracle bones have been recovered (Nelson 1996a). Another Shan settlement was at Taosi in Shanxi. The small walled village contained an astronomical observatory (Xu and He 2010).

Site 3. The Grand Canal, Beijing Municipality, Hebei, Jiangsu, Shandong, and Tianjin Municipality. Started in 486 BCE in Jiangsu province and completed by 610 CE, the 1,115-mile canal had 24 locks. In the 1280s, the canal was shortened by construction of a section across the foothills of the mountains in Shandong. It was built to move goods from the south to the north. Sections are still navigable, mostly in the southern portion in Jiangsu and Zhejiang. However, the canal north of the Yangtze will live on because, although it is no longer navigable, it is being upgraded to serve as the eastern route of the South-North Water Transfer Project (Lague 2007; World Heritage Tentative Lists 2011). The canal is being widened and deepened, and water will be pumped under the Yellow River in a tunnel (Stone and Jia 2006).

Sites 4 and 5. Great Wall (Hebei, Shanxi, and Shaanxi) and Qufu (Shandong). The first centralized monarchy was the Qin dynasty. It was in this period (221 to 207 BCE) that the Great Wall, another World Heritage site, was begun in an attempt to secure the northern border. The subsequent Western Han dynasty established Confucianism as the favored philosophy and opened up the Silk Route to the Mediterranean Sea. The house of Confucius, located at Qufu in Shandong, is a World Heritage site.

Site 6. Sanyangzhuang, Henan. During floods, the Yellow River channel downstream of Zhengzhou, capital of Henan, has relocated at various times in China’s history. From 1324 to 1853, for example, the river actually entered the Yellow Sea in Jingsu around 34 degrees North. Currently, the present-day delta is about 38 degrees North, and in the past it has entered as far north as 39 degrees, near present-day Tianjin. Historically, the river has carried massive quantities of sand and silt eroded from the loess plateau to the north and west. As these sediments fall out, they cause much braiding of the river channel, which leads to multiple channels and frequent course changes (Kidder 2010). About 10 or 11 BCE, a massive and catastrophic flood buried the village of Sanyangzhuang, now located in northeastern Henan. Fields, plows, pottery, and tile-roofed homes were buried under 70 cm of silt. The area did not recover until the 7^th Century CE (Lawler 2010). The village site was discovered by modern archaeologists in 2003, and the sediments on-site preserve a record of 12,000 years of Yellow River and Chinese history. At the village site, roof tiles are imprinted with characters reading “long life,” Cart tracks and human footprints lead out of town, suggesting a quick exodus and possessions were left frozen in time. Copper coins, hoofprints, and impressions of mulberry leaves have been found (Watts 2011). The flood of 11 BCE was so extensive that it may have caused population relocation to the south. In fact, wetter climatic conditions, improved technology leading to more intensive farming and subsequent erosion, and deforestation may have helped to cause political uncertainties at the time (Kidder 2010).

Site 7. Mancheng, Hebei. The tombs of Han dynasty rulers are representative of the luxury of the period, with jade shrouds covering the buried king and his princess (Segraves 1996). The Han dynasty came to an end by 220 CE.

Site 8. Longmen Grottoes, Henan. The carved Buddhist grottoes at Longmen, a World Heritage site, are representative of the Tang dynasty. The apogee of Chinese stone carving and the largest collection of Chinese art from the Wei and Tang Dynasties, Longmen Grottoes is on the Yi River south of Luoyang. The caves west of the river tend to be from the Wei and those east of the river tend to be from the Tang Dynasty. There are 2,345 grottoes and 100,000 sculptures. The carvings are all dedicated to Buddhism and took place from 493 to 1127. Preserved for 1500 years, some carvings were removed in the early 20^th century and sold to Western art collectors. The Offering Procession of the Empress as Donor with Her Court, carved about 522 CE, is in the collection of the Nelson-Atkins Museum in Kansas City.

Site 9. Zhaozhou Bridge (Anji Bridge), Hebei. The oldest standing bridge in China, built 1400 years ago and completed in 605 CE, is still in use and is a civil engineering landmark. It is the world's oldest open-spandrel arch bridge. There are smaller arches at each end of the bridge that transmit the load of the deck down to the main arch. The open spandrels allow some water to flow over the main arch when the river floods.

Site 10. Hongcun, Anhui. In 960 CE, the Song dynasty was established, and its capital was Kaifeng, Henan. Military defeats in 1126 forced the Song to move south to Zhejiang, and all of China was conquered in 1278 by the Mongols Ghenghis Khan and his grandson Kublai Khan. Hongcun village, dating to 1131 CE, is a World Heritage site representative of the Song dynasty period.

Sites 11 to 16, Sacred Mountains: Tai (Shandong), Song (Henan), Hua (Shaanxi), North Heng (Shanxi), Wutai (Shanxi), and Jiuhua (Anhui)

The Chinese culture, through Taoist and Buddhist beliefs, attempts to blend temples, shrines, and even tombs with the natural landscape, which transitions from dense evergreen forested mountains in the south to drier grasslands in the northwest of this map area. Mountain peaks were transformed into elaborate cultural landscapes and places to visit and cherish, and formed the backdrop for tombs of emperors. Each sacred mountain is a cultural and natural landscape. The five sacred Taoist mountains are Tai, Song, Hua, North Heng, and South Heng (located to the south of the map area). The four sacred Buddhist mountains are Wutai, Jiuhua, Emei, and Putuo. Emei and Putuo are located to the west and south of the map area.

Site 17, Wudang Mountain, Hubei. Taoist buildings date to the 7^th century, and the Purple Heaven Palace dates to 1119. Wudang is the birthplace of the martial art tai chi.

Site 18, Huang Mountain, Anhui, has inspired Chinese art and literature since the 700s. A school of Chinese landscape painting is named after the mountain; many of these paintings date from the 16^th century.

Sites 19, 20, and 21. Forbidden City, Summer Palace, and Temple of Heaven, Beijing Municipality. These sites represent the later Chinese dynasties from 1416 to 1911 and indicate supreme power as well as the emperor’s mandate to preserve harmony and hierarchy. The Forbidden City is the most grand and best-preserved palace complex in the world, covering 183 acres and surrounded by a moat and wall. The Summer Palace is a 726-acre royal park and garden. The Temple of Heaven is a sacrificial altar symbolizing the relationship between earth and heaven.

Sites 22, 23, and 24. Xianling (Hubei), Western Qing Tombs (Hebei), and Zhong Mountain (Jiangsu). Tombs are sacred cultural landscapes that reflect the cultural and artistic traditions that dominated this part of the world for 500 years. The ideal tomb site attempted to achieve harmony with the natural landscape. There must be a mountain to the north, lower elevation to the south, and hills to the east and west. The Xianling tomb in Hubei and the Zhong Mountain tombs in Nanjing are from the Ming Dynasty (1368 to 1644). The Qing Dynasty (1644 to 1912) was the last dynasty; these tombs are located in Hebei southwest of Beijing and consist of 14 tombs and two building complexes in a pine forest.

Site 25, Ping Yao, Shanxi, is a well-preserved traditional walled Chinese city and represents the Qing dynasty as it was a major banking center. There are 4,000 preserved Ming- and Qing-dynasty houses within the city walls. The city wall itself was built to resemble a tortoise.

IV. Terrestrial Ecoregions

Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forests of the Paleoarctic Biome

PA 101. Guizhou Plateau broadleaf and mixed forests. This cool, cloudy realm of limestone pinnacles is dominated by plants in the oak, laurel, and tea families. Other common plants include hemlock, maple, rhododendron, Prunus and fir. Animals include macaques, monkeys, tigers, Sika deer, and leopards. Found in Chongqing Municipality, Hubei, and Hunan on the map.

PA 411. Central China loess plateau mixed forest. This ecoregion developed on wind-blown loess 200 m thick and is a transition from the deciduous temperate forests to the steppes and deserts to the north and west. The forest is a mixed broadleaf deciduous forest of oak, birch, maple, and linden. Found in Beijing Municipality, Hebei, Henan, Shanxi, and Shaanxi in the map area.

PA 415. Changjiang Plain evergreen forests. The broad Yangtze or Chang Jiang (Long River) valley downstream of the Three Gorges originally contained native evergreen oak and laurel forests. The Yangtze River dolphin is found in Poyang Lake, along with Chinese alligator. Found in Anhui, Henan, Hubei, Jiangsu, and Zhejiang within the map area.

PA 417. Daba Mountains evergreen forests. Mixed evergreen oaks and tree mints; pines. Shennongjia in western Hubei has old growth forests. It is known for the rare Davidia tree. Found in Chongqing Municipality, Hubei, and Shaanxi in the map area.

PA 424. Huang He Plain mixed forests. This mostly deciduous forest area is characterized by oak, elm, pistachio, and pines. Found in Anhui, Beijing Municipality, Hebei, Henan, Jiangsu, Shandong, Shanxi, Shaanxi, and Tianjin Municipality in the map area.

PA 430. Northeast China Plain deciduous forests. Deciduous forests found here are a mixture of hardwoods and conifers, including oaks,maples, elm, ash, and pine. Found in Liaoning in the northeastern corner of the map area.

PA 434. Qin Ling Mountains deciduous forests. Found in Henan, Hubei, and Shaanxi in the map area. A biologically rich deciduous forest of oak, elm, walnut, maple, and pines. To the west of the map area are panda preserves.

Temperate Grasslands, Savannas, and Shrublands

PA 813. Mongolian-Manchurian grassland. Flat to rolling grasslands provide habitat for wild ungulates and are used for sheep and goat grazing. Found in Hebei, Inner Mongolia and Shanxi in the map area

Flooded Grasslands and Savannas

PA 902. Bohai Sea saline meadow. Made of sediments in the Yellow and Luan River Deltas, these areas are dominated by goosefoot and grasses. They are mostly used for rice and aquaculture, with natural areas providing habitat for Saunders gull and red-crowned crane. Found in Hebei, Shandong, and Tianjin Municipality in the map area.

PA 908. Yellow Sea saline meadow. The delta of the Huai River consists of saline meadows dominated by goosefoot and grasslands. About 40 percent of the wild population of red-crowned crane winters here. Some areas are used for shrimp aquaculture. Found in Jiangsu in the map area.

Montane Grasslands and Shrublands

PA 1013, Ordos Plateau Steppe. Scrub vegetation with some desertification from heavy grazing. Found in Inner Mongolia, Shanxi, and Shaanxi in the map area.

V. Freshwater Ecoregions of the World

Northern Asia Region, Temperate Floodplain Rivers and Wetlands

635. Huang He Great Bend. Includes Inner Mongolia province on map.

636. Lower Huang He. Includes Beijing and Tianjin municipalities and Hebei, Henan, Shandong, Shaanxi, and Shanxi provinces on map.

Southern Asia Region, Temperate Floodplain Rivers and Wetlands

766. Lower Yangtze. The Yangtze and tributaries upriver to Three Gorges, including Huai River, Weishan Lake, and Dan River drainages. Includes Anhui, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, and provinces on map.

Southern Asia Region, Temperate Upland Rivers

765. Middle Yangtze. Includes Three Gorges area of Chongqing Municipality and western Hubei province on map.

VI. Marine Ecoregions of the World

Temperate Northern Pacific Realm, Cold Temperate Northwest Pacific Province.

50. Yellow Sea. Includes Yellow Sea and Bo Gulf on map.

VII. World Heritage Sites

Dengfeng (Mount Songshang), Henan. The central Taoist sacred mountain of China is associated with the concept of the center of heaven and earth. It was believed that this mountains was the only place where astronomical observations were accurate. The site consists of eight units containing temples, pagodas, an academy, and an observatory. Cypress trees on the site are believed to be 4500 years old. The other four sacred mountains are Hua (shown on map), North Heng (shown on map), South Heng (not in map area), and Tai (shown on map, also a World Heritage Site). Ecoregion PA424.

Great Wall, Hebei, Shanxi, and Shaanxi. The world’s largest military structure was built from 220 BC to 1600 AD and served a single strategic purpose for 2,000 years. Ecoregions 411, 813, and 1013.

Hongcun Village, Anhui (Part of Ancient Villages in Southern Anhui site). Founded in 1131, this is an exceptionally well-preserved feudal village dating to the Tang and Song dynasties. The village is arranged in the shape of an ox and has a crescent-shaped moon pond. Northwest are other villages of similar character, including Tachuan, noted for fall foliage. Northeast of Honcun is the Mukeng bamboo forest, offering hiking trails. Ecoregion PA 415.

Huang (Yellow) Mountain, Anhui. Renowned for its magnificent scenery, Huang Mountain inspired art and literature throughout Chinese history. Huangshan culture is a school of Chinese landscape painting. Scenery includes rocky peaks, forests of stone pillars, and waterfalls, all in a densely forested landscape of evergreen moist forest below 1,100 m and deciduous forest from 1100 to 1800 m. Huang is also in the world network of geoparks for its natural landscape. Ecoregion 415.

Imperial Palaces of the Ming and Qing Dynasties, Beijing Municipality. Capital of China for 3,000 years, the Forbidden City or Palace Museum in the center of Beijing was the seat of supreme power from 1416 to 1911.The red walls and yellow roofs in this 74-acre area are a reflection of the emperor’s mandate to preserve harmony and hierarchy. Ecoregion PA411.

Imperial Tombs, Beijing Municipality, Hebei, Hubei, and Jiangsu. The world heritage unit is composed of 14 sites, eight of which are in the map area. These tombs are sacred cultural landscapes, a testimony to a cultural and architectural tradition that for 500 years dominated eastern Asia. The imposing mausolea were an affirmation of authority. Ming tombs attempted to achieve a harmony with a natural site, consistent with principles of Confucianism and Taoism. The desired location offered a mountain to the north, a lower elevation landscape to the south, and must be framed to the east and west by hills. One waterway needs to be featured. Buildings are constructed along a main access raod several km in length and secondary ways to lead to other mausolea.

Unit 1, Xianling Tomb, Hubei, a Ming tomb of Xing, who was declared emperor posthumously in 1519. Ecoregion PA 417.

Unit 3, Western Qing Tombs, Hebei. There are 14 imperial tombs and two building complexes in centuries-old pine forests. Ecoregion PA411.

Units 5 through 11, Nanjing, Jiangsu. These Ming Dynasty tombs are on the south side of Zhong Mountain, Nanjing. The site was chosen to reflect geomantic concepts of Confucianism and Taoism, with huge culverts and a sewer system to convey an outer imperial river and an inner river. The sacred way is lined with 34 statues. Ecoregion PA 415.

Longmen Grottoes, Henan. The apogee of Chinese stone carving and the largest collection of Chinese art from the Wei and Tang Dynasties, Longmen Grottoes is on the Yi River south of Luoyang. The caves west of the river tend to be from the Wei and those east of the river tend to be from the Tang Dynasty. There are 2,345 grottoes and 100,000 sculptures. The carvings are all dedicated to Buddhism and took place from 493 to 1127. Preserved for 1500 years, some carvings were removed in the early 20^th century and sold to Western art collectors. The Offering Procession of the Empress as Donor with Her Court, carved about 522 CE, is in the collection of the Nelson-Atkins Museum in Kansas City. Ecoregion PA 424.

Ping Yao, Shanxi. A well-preserved traditional walled Chinese city, with buildings dating to the 14^th century. Nearby Shuanglin Temple dates to 1571. Ping Yao was China’s major banking center in the 19^th and early 20^th centuries. Ecoregion PA 411.

Qufu, Shandong. The family mansion of Confucius, renowned philosopher, politician and educator who lived from 551 to 479 BCE, founder of an ideology that pre-eminent in China for 2,000 years. The complex contains more than 100 buildings maintained for the last 2,000 years. The Confucius Forest, a burial ground for Confucius and his descendents, is a pine and cypress forest covering 200 ha. Ecoregion PA 424.

Summer Palace, Beijing Municipality. Built in 1750, this is the masterpiece Chinese landscape garden and is a symbol of Chinese civilization. The natural landscape is combined with pavilions, halls, palaces and temples. Ecoregion PA 411.

Tai Mountain (East Great Mountain), Shandong. Considered a birthplace of Chinese civilization, ancient temples built over 2,000 years and dense forests dot this mountain cultural landscape. One of the five Taoist mountains, the eastern mountain is associated with the rising sun, birth, and renewal. The central hiking route is an outdoor museum of calligraphic art. The other Taoist mountains are Hua, Shaanxi (shown on map), North Heng, Shanxi (shown on map), South Heng, Hunan (not shown on map), and Song, Henan (shown on map). Tai Mountain is also in the world network of geoparks for its early Precambrian trilobite fossils. Ecoregion PA 424.

Temple of Heaven, Beijing Municipality. Dating from 1420, this imperial sacrificial altar is located amidst gardens and pine woods. Considered a masterpiece of art and design, it symbolizes the relationship between earth and heaven at the heart of Chinese cosmogony. Ecoregion PA 411.

Wudang Mountains Ancient Building Complex, Hubei. Taoist buildings date to the 7^th Century. The Golden Shrine, atop Sky Pillar Peak, is built of bronze and dates to 1307. Purple Heaven Palace, built 1119 to 1126 is the largest and best preserved building complex. The mountain is considered the birthplace of the martial art tai chi. Ecoregion PA417.

Wutai Mountains Cultural Landscape, Shanxi. One of the four sacred Buddhist mountains and home to Manjusri, Bodhisattva of Wisdom, Wutai is home to 41 monasteries, dating to the first century CE. Foguang Temple is the highest surviving timber building of the Tang Dynasty, with life-sized clay sculptures. Shuxiang Temple contains 500 statues representing Buddhist stories in three-dimensional pictures of mountains and water. There are five open treeless peaks, giving the mountain the nickname of five terrace mountain. The other three sacred mountains are Emei in Sichuan (not shown on map), Putuo in Zhejiang (not shown on map), and Jiuhua in Anhui (shown on map). Ecoregion PA 411.

Yin Ruins, Henan. The ancient capital of the Shang Dynasty, 1300 to 1406 BCE. The Bronze Age site has royal tombs and palaces from the earliest capital of China. Ecoregion PA 411.

Yungang Grottoes, Shanxi. Considered a masterpiece of Chinese Buddhist cave art, this Fifth Century BCE site consists of 252 grottoes and 51,000 statues. Ecoregion PA813

Zhoukoudian, Beijing Municipality. The fossils of Peking Man, now known as Homo erectus, were found in 1929 at this site 50 km southwest of Beijing. The cave-riddled hills yielded 200 bones before 1937, in strata that are 680,000 to 780,000 years old (Stone 2009). There is some evidence that bones were burned, although it is disputed whether the inhabitants were intentionally using fire (Wu 1999). The fossils and artifacts such as rudimentary tools vanished following the Japanese invasion in 1937. Ecoregions 411 and 424.

VIII. Other points of interest

Cangyan Mountain (Green Crag Mountain), Hebei. The Hanging Palace, perched on a cliff, is located here in a forest of cypress and blue sandalwood. Ecoregion PA411.

Dangjiacun, Shaanxi. A 14^th century village with 125 courtyard houses and a Confucian pagoda. Ecoregion PA411.

Erlitou, Henan. An archaeological site in the Yellow River floodplain that may be representative of China’s founding dynasty, the Xia dynasty, dating to 2000 BCE. It contains the earliest known bronze vessels (Nelson 1996b). Ecoregion PA424.

Foguang Temple, Shanxi. Wooden buildings date to 857 CE. Ecoregion PA 411.

Guoyu, Shanxi. This still-inhabited Ming dynasty settlement is near Haihui Buddhist temple and Chin’s castle, home of the author of a Chinese dictionary in the 17^th century. Ecoregions PA 411 and PA424

Hua Mountain (West Great Mountain), Shaanxi. One of five Taoist sacred mountains, known for precipitous terrain. Ecoregion 424.

Heng Mountain (North Great Mountain), Shanxi. One of five Taoist sacred mountains, it is actually known for its hanging Buddhist monastery. Long support stilts make for rickety catwalks and corridors. Ecoregion PA 411.

Jiahu, Henan. A sixth to seventh millennium BCE archaeological site which contains controversial evidence of Chinese writing on tortoise shells. There is also evidence of flutes (Lawler 2003). Ecoregion PA415.

Jietai Temple, Beijing Municipality. Located west of Beijing, this temple dates to 622 CE and is dotted with ancient pines up to 1300 years in age. Ecoregion PA411.

Jinci Temple, Shanxi. Dating to 984, the Hall of the Sacred Mother contains eight dragons and 42 Song-Dynasty clay maidservants. The Zhou cypress has grown at a 30 degree angle for the last 900 years. Ecoregion PA 411.

Jiuhua, Anhui. One of four sacred Buddhist mountains, it is dedicated to Ksitigarbha, Bodhisattva of beings in hell realms. Ecoregion PA 415.

Lijia Mountain, Shanxi. Cave houses to nine stories are in a 550-year-old village near the Yellow River. Ecoregion PA 411.

Mancheng, Hubei. The second century BCE tombs from the Han Dynasty of Liu Sheng and Dou Wan are located in cave complexes in a hillside. Jade shrouds cover the king and his princess (Seagraves 1996). Ecoregion PA411.

Mizhi, Shaanxi. The Li Zicheng Palace, built in 1643, for the shepherd who led a peasant rebellion and became emperor. Ecoregion PA1013.

Mogan Mountain, Zhejiang. A resort famous for hiking to forested views and bamboo and grand villa architecture. Ecoregion PA 424.

Nanchan Temple, Shanxi. Wooden buildings date to 782 CE. Ecoregion PA 411.

Qiao, Shanxi. This Qing-dynasty merchant’s residence contains six courtyards and 300 rooms. Ecoregion PA 411.

Qixia Temple and Thousand Buddha Cliff, Jiangsu. Statues carved into this cliff date to the Qi Dynasty. Ecoregion PA424.

Sanyangzhuang, Henan. An archaeological site in northeast Henan considered to be China’s Pompeii because the village was evacuated quickly in response to an onrushing flood, leaving a snapshot of a village and all its belongings in 11 BCE. Ecoregion PA 424.

Tanzhe Temple, Beijing Municipality. Located west of Beijing, this third century temple is known for ancient cypress and pine trees. Ecoregion PA 411.

Taosi, Shanxi. An archaeological site considered to be a founding site of Chinese civilization in the second millennium BCE. Ecoregion PA 411.

Wang Family Courtyard, Shanxi. This Qing dynasty residence contains cave dwellings. Ecoregion PA 411.

Wanxian Mountains Scenic Area and Guoliangcun, Henan. This high-altitude stone hamlet has precipitous dropoffs and an artists colony. Ecoregion PA 411.

White Horse Temple, east of Luoyang, Henan. The Buddhist monastery is believed to the first erected in China, in the first century CE. Ecoregion PA424.

Xiongjia Zhong, Hubei. This site contains 2300-year-old tombs with China’s largest collection of jade. The skeletal remains of two horses pulling a chariot have been unearthed. Ecoregion PA424.

Yangzhou, Jiangsu. The Slender West Lake Park was a vacation spot ffor emperors. Boat rides on the Grand Canal are offered here. Ecoregion PA 424.

Yingxian, Shanxi. This site in northern Shanxi is the home of the five-story Muta tower, the world’s oldest and tallest wooden pagoda. It houses Buddhist carvings. Ecoregion PA 411.

Yuci, Shanxi. This ancient city dating to 1362 contains 400 well-preserved rooms. Ecoregion PA 411.

Yujiacun, Hebei. This Chinese clan village is known as the stone village because the architecture is carved from stones. Ecoregion PA 411.

Zhangbi, Shanxi. The 1400-year-old network of defense tunnels dates to the Sui Dynasty. Ecoregion PA 411.

Zhaozhou Bridge (Anji Bridge), Hebei. The world’s first segmental arch bridge, built 1400 years ago, is still in use and is a civil engineering landmark. Ecoregion PA 411.

Zhujiayu, Shandong. This village dates to 1700 BCE and is known for its ancestral temples. Ecoregion PA424.

Zijin (Purple-Gold) Mountain, Nanjing Municipality, Jiangsu. This heavily forested area contains tombs, the Linggu Temple, and a botanical garden. Ecoregion PA424.

IX. References

Abell, Robin and 27 others. 2008. Freshwater Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Biogeographic Units for Freshwater Biodiversity Conservation. Bioscience 58:403-414.

American Society of Civil Engineers, History and Heritage of Civil Engineering, Landmark Projects. http://live.asce.org/hh/index.mxml?lid=142&versionChecked=true

Brown, Jackum, Kieran Fogarty and Jo Archer. 2007. Asia. In Emma Beare, ed. 2006. 501 Must-Visit Natural Wonders. Bounty Books (Palawan).

BirdLife International. 2011. BirdLife’s Online World Bird Database. Accessed January 14, 2010, at http://www.birdlife.org/

Hao Xin. 2007. Pollution Slows China’s Canal Project. Science 317:1846.

Harper, Damian et al. 2011. China. Lonely Planet.

Jones, Martin K. and Xinyi Liu. 2009. Origins of Agriculture in East Asia. Science 324:730-731.

Kidder, Tristam R. 2010. Geoarchaeology at Sanyangzhuang: A Preliminary Report on the 2009 Field Season. Submitted to Henan Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, Zhengzhou. Publication of Geoarchaeology Lab, Washington University in St. Louis. http://www.artsci.wustl.edu/~anthro/archy/projchina.html

Lague, David. 2007. On an Ancient Canal, Grunge Gives Way to Grandeur. New York Times, July 24.

Lawler, Andrew. 2010. Uncovering a Rural Chinese Pompeii. Science 328:566.

Lawler, Andrew. 2009. Beyond the Yellow River: How China Became China. Science 325:930-935.

Lawler, Andrew. 2009. Founding Dynasty or Myth? Science 325:934.

Lawler, Andrew. 2003. Tortoise Pace for the Evolution of Chinese Writing? Science 300:723.

Nelson, Sarah Milledge. 1996a. Shang Civilization. Pages 140-141 in Fagan, Brian M. The Oxford Companion to Archaeology. Oxford University Press.

Nelson, Sarah Milledge. 1996b. Early Civilizations of China. Pages 137 to 140 in Fagan, Brian M. The Oxford Companion to Archaeology. Oxford University Press.

Olson, David M., et al., 2001. Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Life on Earth. BioScience 51:933-938.

Spalding, Mark D. and 14 others. 2007. Marine Ecoregions of the World: A Bioregionalization of Coastal and Shelf Areas. Bioscience 57:573-583.

Segraves, Julie M. 1996. Han Empire. Pages 143-144 in Brian M. Fagan. The Oxford Companion to Archaeology. Oxford University Press.

Stone, Richard. 2009. Still Seeking Peking Man. Science 325:22-23.

Stone, Richard and Hawk Jia. 2006. Going Against the Flow. Science 313:1034-1037.

Walder, Rebecca, Jackum Brown and David Brown. Asia. In Emma Beare, ed. 2006. 501 Must-Visit Destinations. Bounty Books.

Watts, Judy H. 2011. Beneath the Silt: Combing for Clues to China’s Silk Road. Washington Magazine (Washington University in St. Louis) 81(3):12-17 (June).

World Heritage List. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list (accessed 11/6/10) and World Heritage Tentative Lists (http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5318/).

Wu, Xinzhi. 1999. Investigating the Possible Use of Fire at Zhoukoudian, China. Science 283:299a.

UNESCO-MAB Biosphere Reserve Directory. http://www.unesco.org/mabdb/br/brdir/directory/database.asp (accessed 11/6/10).

Xu Fengxian and He Nu. 2010. Taosi Observatory, China, p. 86. In Clive Ruggles and Michel Cotte. Heritage Sites of Astronomy and Archaeoastronomy in the Context of the UNESCO World Heritage Convention: A Thematic Study. International Council on Monuments and Sites and International Astronomical Union, Paris. Available at http://www.astronomicalheritage.org/.

Dampier, Hamelin, and Ningaloo

2011-07-04T16:52:00.002-04:00

Rock art, stromatolites, and mass spawning

I. Map boundaries: 20 to 30 degrees South; 108 to 117 degrees East

II. Country (Provinces--Regions): Australia (Western Australia—Gascoyne, Mid West, Pilbara, and Wheat Belt regions).

III. Overview

This map area encompasses deserts and savannas of the Western Australia coastline. The northern and central areas are arid; however, occasional summer tropical storms can cause flooding as happened in December 2010 around Carnarvon. The area around Shark Bay received in excess of nine inches of rain from a tropical storm. In addition, the coastal areas from Shark Bay southward receive winter rains, which support a more savanna-like vegetation and spring wildflower displays. The southern portions of the map area, from Shark Bay southward, are dominated by eucalyptus trees in the flora, while the northern, more desertic areas, are dominated by acacia shrubs. This area was not always a desert. Until three million years ago, northwestern Australia was covered with rainforest. At this time, the Indonesian archipelago rose from the ocean floor, changing ocean currents and blocking warm water traveling south along the Australian coast. This led to the decline of precipitation in Australia, and was the death blow to rainforest vegetation (Perkins 2011).

In the northeast corner of the map, the Dampier Archipelago consists of 42 island nature reserves covered with the spinifex grass characteristic of the Pilbara shrublands. The islands and the nearby Murujuga peninsula are the site of the world’s largest known collection of rock art. Images of birds, marine life, terrestrial life including now-extinct species, and human figures are found, along with stone arrangements. These are believed to be dreaming and ceremonial sites of the Ngarda-Ngarli peoples.

Ningaloo Reef, the second longest contiguous reef system in the world and the only major reef on the west coast of any continent, extends for more than 250 km parallel to the coast in the Gascoyne region of Western Australia. It is the site of one of nature’s most spectacular mating rituals. After the March full moon at neap tide, when tidal motion is at a minimum, between 8 and 10 p.m., the corals spawn all at once in the still waters. Wind-driven waves later appear to wash the larvae out to sea. But sometimes, the waves do not appear. The growing coral larvae deplete the oxygen in the lagoon, leading to asphyxiation of the larvae, fish and other animals, and the parent corals themselves. Since its discovery in 1989 at Ningaloo, the mass suicide has been observed at other reefs (Richardson 1994).

The Ningaloo Marine Park, together with adjacent properties at the Cape Range National Park and Muiron Islands Marine Reserve, make up a world heritage site. Ningaloo Reef supports 200 species of coral, 500 species of fish, 600 species of mollusk, and 90 species of echinoderms. There are large populations of dugongs, marine turtles, whales, and whale sharks. Adjacent to the reef, terrestrial habitats of the Carnarvon xeric shrublands are found inland. Cape Range National Park has a limestone karst landscape, supporting 500 caves and sinkholes with rare subterranean aquatic fauna. These rare fauna have evolved in isolation as the Australian continent separated from Gondwana and became increasingly arid as it moved north.

To the south of Ningaloo is Shark Bay, another world heritage site. Constituent units include the Dirk Hartog Island National Park, Francois Peron National Park, Hamelin Pool, and Bernier and Dorre Islands nature reserves. The bay itself is a marine park which supports vast herds of dugong, sharks, turtles, and whales. The world’s largest seagrass beds are here.

Some of the oldest rocks in the world are limestones which have peculiar layers arranged in wavy, crinkled and onionlike forms. They are most common from the Late Precambrian to early Paleozoic era. These structures include branched growths, columns half a meter in diameter and several meters tall, and reeflike masses. With the appearance of burrowing invertebrates, the numbers of these peculiar structures declined (Awramik 1971). At the Hamelin Pool Marine Nature Reserve, the most diverse and abundant stromatolites in the world may be found in the shallow water. Stratomatolites are formed when cyanobacteria band together and produce a sticky gel, which traps sediments and builds layers. The stromatolites in Hamelin Pool orient themselves toward the sun, providing the possibility that fossilized stromatolites can be used to determine the latitude at which they were fossilized (Awramik and Vanyo 1986). In 2010, Chen et al. isolated a unique fifth form of chlorophyll from cyanobacteria in Shark Bay. For most of the past 60 years, chlorophyll was thought to occur in four forms. The new chlorophyll extends oxygenic photosynthesis into the infrared spectrum.

Since 1982, the Shark Bay Dolphin Project has provided scientific research on a small group of wild dolphins. The research has revealed that dolphins lead a complex social life which is only closely paralleled in humans. At nearby Shell Beach Conservation Park, billions of tiny shells along the shoreline of Shark Bay have created a beach one km wide and 10 m deep.

To the south of Shark Bay is the Southwest Australia savanna ecoregion, extending from the western shores of Shark Bay southward across the Mid West region. Kalbarri, LeSueur, and Alexander Morrison National Parks are the heart of the wildflower viewing region. Showy flowers of the Proteaceae plant family are common. The region is characterized by winter rains, which create carpets of wildflower displays.

Inland in the Western Australia mulga shrublands ecoregion, the arid expanse is viewed as an ideal site for radiotelescopes due to excellent sky coverage, radio quietness, and benign tropospheric conditions. The Murchison Radioastronomy Observatory is one of two sites for the proposed International Square Kilometer Array, the largest astronomical instrument ever built (Koenig 2006a, 2006b). The Australian Square Kilometer Array Pathfinder is under construction at a site near the Murchison River, an intermittent watercourse. It will search for faint radio signals from distant galaxies.

IV. Terrestrial Ecoregions of the Australasia Biome

A. Mediterranean Forests, Woodlands, and Shrub

AA1209, Southwest Australia savanna. Widely spaced eucalyptus savanna merges into acacia (wattle) as it moves inland toward sandplains. This is famous for wildflowers including Banksia, kangaroo paws (Anigozanthos), Grevillea, and orchids. Nectar feeders such as possums and wallabies are part of the mammal fauna. Found on Dirk Hartog Island, Edel Land, the Zuytdorp Cliffs and the Mid West region of Western Australia.

B. Deserts and Xeric Shrublands

AA 1301, Carnarvon xeric shrublands. This arid coastal expanse is characterized by acacia and gidgee trees. Notable birds are grasswren and red-tailed black cockatoo. This region encompasses coastal Western Australia from Shark Bay north to Exmouth Bay and includes parts of the Gascoyne, Mid West, and Pilbara regions.

AA1307, Pilbara shrublands. Spinifex grass grows in clumps and rings, called hummocks. Occasional mulga (acacia) trees dot the area. This ecoregion is found in the Pilbara region and includes the offshore Barrow Island, Montebello Islands, and Dampier Archipelago as well as the watersheds of the Fortescue and Cane rivers.

AA 1310, Western Australian Mulga shrublands. The drought-adapted acacia shrub, along with emu bush, hoploush, and Cassia are found here. A grassy understory is found beneath the shrubs. Honeyeaters, kookaburra, and mole marsupial are characteristic animals. Found inland in the south of the Pilbara region, east Gascoyne region, and north Mid West region of Western Australia.

V. Freshwater Ecoregions of the World

Australia and Pacific Region

A. Temperate Coastal Rivers

801. Southwestern Australia. In the southeastern corner of the map, more permanent rivers lead to a diverse fish fauna of Galaxiidae, perches, and eel-tailed catfish (Plotosidae) familes. There are also endemic turtles and crayfishes. This region extends along the coast and includes the Arrowsmith and Moore rivers on the map.

B. Xeric Freshwaters and Closed Basins

802. Pilbara. Extends north along the coast from the Greenough River, including the Murchison, Gascoyne, Ashburton, and Fortescue river drainages. All rivers are intermittent but support endemic fish such as Milyeriaga (blind cavefish), Craterocephalis (hardyheads), and Leiopotherapan (grunter).

804. Paleo. This area has isolated saline lakes but no permanent, fish-inhabited waterways and includes inland portions of the Mid West, Gascoyne, and Pilbara regions.

VI. Marine Ecoregions of the World

A. Central Indo-Pacific Realm, Northwest Australian Shelf Province

144. Exmouth to Broome. Found from the Muiron Islands northward along the Pilbara region of Western Australia.

145. Ningaloo. Found from the Cape Range National Park southward to about Cape Cuvier in the Gascoyne region of Western Australia.

B. Temperate Australia Realm, West Central Australian Shelf Province

210. Shark Bay. Found from Cape Cuvier southward to Kalbarri National Park in the Gascoyne and Mid West regions of Western Australia.

211. Houtman. Found from Kalbarri National Park southward in the Mid West region of Western Australia.

VII. World Heritage Sites

Ningaloo Coast. The best developed fringing reef in the world extends for more than 200 km along the Western Australia Coast. Inland, the Cape Range contains a globally significant karst area formed as a result of seawater incursion into the limestone substrate. The aquatic community of the Bundera sinkhole is unique in the southern hemisphere for its remipede crustaceans. The world heritage area includes Bundegi Coastal Park on Exmouth Peninsula, Cape Range National Park, Jurabi Coastal Park on Exmouth Peninsula, Learmonth Air Weapons Range, Muiron Islands Marine Management Area, and Ningaloo Marine Park, all in the Gascoyne region. Individual units are described in the points of interest listing.

Shark Bay. Listed for natural beauty, earth history, biological diversity, and ecological processes, Shark Bay is known for the most diverse and abundant examples of living stromatolites; a unique hydrologic system with three salinity zones and the world’s largest seagrass beds; the world’s largest dugong population; and endemic plants, marine animals, and terrestrial animals. There are 28 endemic plants, five endemic mammals, whales, and sea turtles. The world heritage area includes Bernier Island Nature Reserve, Dirk Hartog Island National Park, Dorre Island Nature Reserve, Edel Land, Faure Island, Francois Peron National Park, Freycinet Island, Hamelin Pool Marine Nature Reserve, Quoin Bluff, Shark Bay Marine Park, Shell Beach Conservation Park, Wooramel Coast, and Zuytdorp Cliffs, all in the Gascoyne region of Western Australia. Individual units are described in the points of interest listing.

VIII. Points of Interest

Alexander Morrison National Park, Mid West region. This park is noted for a diversity of endemic wildflowers, including Banksia and Myrtaceae species. Terrestrial ecoregion 1209.

Mount Augustus National Park, Gascoyne region. A 717-m peak rising above arid shrubland is the biggest solitary rock in the world. The park has rock art and permanent water. Terrestrial ecoregion 1310.

Barrow Island Marine Park and Marine Management Area, Pilbara region. This reserve protects coral reefs and sea turtle breeding areas. Barrow Island is an Important Bird Area for pied oystercatcher, spinifexbird, white-winged fairy wren, pied oystercatcher, and grey-tailed tattler. Terrestrial ecoregion 1307 and marine ecoregion 144.

Bernier Island Nature Reserve and Dorre Island Nature Reserve, Gascoyne Region. Part of Shark Bay World Heritage Area. Four mammals are endemic to Bernier and Dorre islands: Shark Bay mouse, banded hare-wallaby, western barred bandicoot, and rufous hare-wallaby. Terrestrial ecoregion 1301 and marine ecoregion 210.

Bundegi Coastal Park, Gascoyne Region. Part of Ningaloo Coast World Heritage Area. Terrestrial ecoregion 1301 and marine ecoregion 145.

Cape Range National Park, Gascoyne Region. Part of Ningaloo Coast World Heritage Area. Deep canyons and gorges mark this globally significant karst area with rare invertebrates in the Bundera sinkhole. Rock wallabies, kangaroos, emus, echidnas, and lizards are common animals. Offshore, the Cape Range Canyons support upwellings that help to maintain the biological diversity of the Ningaloo Reef system. Terrestrial ecoregion 1301 and marine ecoregion 145.

Coalseam Conservation Park, Mid West Region. Botanically diverse acacia shrubland and ancient marine fossils along the Irwin River are protected. The notable wildflower display is carpets of pink, white, and yellow everlastings. Terrestrial ecoregion 1209.

Dalgaranga, Mid West Region. A small impact crater from about 270,000 years ago. Terrestrial ecoregion 1310.

Dampier Archipelago Island Reserves and Burrup Peninsula (Murujuga), Pilbara region. The largest collection of petroglyphs in the world (up to a million in number) contains drawings of kangaroos, emus, and thylacines, an extinct marsupial. The 42 islands have been the subject of an ongoing marine biodiversity inventory, with 4,500 species recorded to date, and are rich in brittle stars, sea cucumbers, starfish, sea urchins and sea lilies. They are also known for sea turtle nesting. Terrestrial ecoregion 1307 and marine ecoregion 144.

Dampier Saltworks, Pilbara region. An Important Bird Area for red-necked stint and red-capped plover. Terrestrial ecoregion 1307.

Denham, Gascoyne region. Location of the Shark Bay World Heritage Discovery Centre. Terrestrial ecoregion 1301.

Dirk Hartog Island National Park, Gascoyne region. Part of Shark Bay World Heritage Area. Cape Inscription, at the northern tip, is the location of the Dirk Hartog Landing Site by the Dutch East India Company. This first European landing in Australia was in 1616. The island is characterized by steep cliffs on the west side and low limestone plains on the east side. Rare sandhill frogs and the black and white fairy wren are found here, as are breeding loggerhead turtles. Surges of waves into coastal rocks create blowholes, which are a scenic feature. Quoin Bluff on Dirk Hartog Island is an Important Bird Area for nesting pied cormorant. Terrestrial ecoregion 1209 and marine ecoregion 210.

Dongara, Mid West region. The Irwin River Nature Trail is a wildflower viewing area and also is noted for black swans, pelicans, and cormorants. Terrestrial ecoregion 1209.

Edel Land and the Zuytdorp Cliffs, Gascoyne region. Part of Shark Bay World Heritage Area. Scenic limestone cliffs 200 km long and 200 m high are found to the west and south of Shark Bay. Terrestrial ecoregion 1209 and marine ecoregion 210.

Exmouth Gulf, Gascoyne and Pilbara regions. The mangroves extending north along the coast are an Important Bird Area for grey-tailed tattler and pied oystercatcher. Marine ecoregion 144.

Faure and Pelican Islands, Gascoyne region. Part of Shark Bay World Heritage Area. An Important Bird Area with breeding fairy tern, pied oystercatcher, and red-necked stint. Terrestrial ecoregion 1301 and marine ecoregion 210.

Francois Peron National Park, Gascoyne region. Part of Shark Bay World Heritage Area. Red sandy plains have acacias and shrubs typical of the desert, while flowering plants from temperate Australia such as Hakea and Grevilla reach their northern limits. Gypsum claypans called barridas are interspersed throughout the park. Just south of the park is Monkey Mia, home of dolphin research activities (described above in the overview). Terrestrial ecoregion 1301 and marine ecoregion 210.

Freycinet Island, Gascoyne region. Part of Shark Bay World Heritage Area. An Important Bird Area for nesting pied cormorant. Terrestrial ecoregion 1301 and marine ecoregion 210.

Mount Gibson Sanctuary and Charles Darwin Reserve, Mid West and Wheat Belt regions. These are Important Bird Areas for malleefowl and western corella. Terrestrial ecoregion 1209.

Hamelin Pool Marine Nature Reserve, Gascoyne Region. Part of Shark Bay World Heritage Area. The stromatolites are accessible by a boardwalk. Also found here are the Hamelin cockle, a species of mollusk which is so prolific that building blocks can be cut from shells on the beach. Marine ecoregion 210.

Houtman Abrolhos Islands, Mid West region. The 122 coral islands are the most important seabird nesting site in the eastern Indian Ocean (an Important Bird Area), with up to one million pairs of seabirds, and are home to rare tropical and temperate fish species. The Wallabi group of islands is the site of the Batavia shipwreck in 1629. The flagship of the Dutch East India Company ran aground on a reef. Survivors built huts on West Wallabi Island. An unexpected series of events ensued, including mutiny and murders. Of 332 people, only 116 survived. Terrestrial ecoregion 1209 and marine ecoregion 211.

Jurabi Coastal Park, Gascoyne region. Part of Ningaloo Coast World Heritage Site. Terrestrial ecoregion 1301 and marine ecoregion 145.

Kalbarri National Park, Mid West Region. The lower Murchison River has created a gorge with red- and white-banded gorges, sea cliffs, and arches. The area is noted for spring wildflowers (Banksia, Grevillea, and kangaroo paw (Haemodoraceae family), grey kangaroos, and emus. Humpback whales and dolphins can be seen offshore. Terrestrial ecoregion 1209 and marine ecoregion 210.

Karara and Lochada, Mid West region. This is an Important Bird Area for malleefowl and western corella. Terrestrial ecoregion 1209.

Kennedy Range National Park, Gascoyne region. A mesa with gorges, seasonal waterfalls, and ancient dune fields on top of the flat-topped mountain. Terrestrial ecoregion 1301.

Koobabbie, Mid West and Wheat Belt regions. This is an Important Bird Area for Carnaby’s black-cockatoo and western corella. Terrestrial ecoregion 1209.

Learmonth Air Weapons Range, Gascoyne region. Part of Ningaloo Coast World Heritage Site. Terrestrial ecoregion 1301.

LeSueur National Park, Mid West region. A mesa in the northern sand plains has shrublands and is known as a wildflower viewing area with 820 species. Terrestrial ecoregion 1209.

Lake MacLeod, Gascoyne region. This intermittent lake is an Important Bird Area for fairy tern, red-necked stint, curlew sandpiper, banded stilt, red-necked avocet, red-capped plover, and dusky gerygone. Terrestrial ecoregion 1301.

Millstream-Chichester National Park, Pilbara region. Escarpments and tree-line watercourses from springs along the Fortescue River provide an oasis in the desert. Terrestrial ecoregion 1307.

Montebello Islands Marine Park, Lowendal Islands Nature Reserve, and Great Sandy Islands Nature Reserve, Pilbara region. The site of British nuclear tests in 1952 and 1956, these parks protect about 300 islands with mangroves, corals, tropical fish and seabirds. A whale migration path also passes by the islands. The Lowendal Islands are an Important Bird Area for crested tern and bridled tern. The Montebello Islands re an Important Bird Area for fairy tern, roseate tern, and sooty oystercatcher. Terrestrial ecoregion 1307 and marine ecoregion 144.

Muiron Islands Marine Management Area, Gascoyne region. Part of Ningaloo Coast World Heritage Site. The islands contain important turtle nesting areas. The limestone reef contains thousands of cardinalfish. Terrestrial ecoregion 1301 and marine ecoregion 144.

Murchison Radioastronomy Observatory (MRO), Mid West region. Home of the Australian Square Kilometer Array Pathfinder (ASKAP) project, this is a next-generation radio telescope. Terrestrial ecoregion 1310.

Ningaloo Marine Park, Gascoyne region. Part of Ningaloo Coast world Heritage Site. The 250-km long reef, located 100 m offshore is known for 220 species of coral and synchronized mass spawning (see overview section). Sharks, manta rays, humpback whale, turtles, whale sharks, and dugongs can be viewed. Marine ecoregions 145 and 210.

Shark Bay Marine Park, Gascoyne region. Part of Shark Bay World Heritage Site, this area is home to the world’s largest herds of dugong as well as loggerhead turtles, humpback whales, and 28 shark species. Stromatolites and the world’s largest seagrass beds are here. Marine ecoregion 210.

Shell Beach Conservation Park, Gascoyne region. Part of Shark Bay World Heritage Site. Billions of shells of Hamelin cockle create a beach one km wide and 10 m thick. Terrestrial ecoregion 1301 and marine ecoregion 210.

Sunday Island, Pilbara region. An Important Bird Area for roseate tern. Terrestrial ecoregion 1301 and marine ecoregion 144.

Tathra National Park, MidWest Region. The rolling sandplains are a wildflower viewing area. Terrestrial ecoregion 1209.

Thevenard Island, Pilbara region. Noted as a flatback turtle rookery. Terrestrial ecoregion 1301 and marine ecoregion 144.

Wallaby Saddle, Indian Ocean. This area offshore of Shark Bay is noted for aggregations of sperm whales.

Woodleigh, Gascoyne region. A 40-km wide impact crater, about 364 million years in age. Terestrial ecoregion 1301.

Wooramel Coast, Gascoyne region. Part of Shark Bay World Heritage Site. Mangroves line the coast of Shark Bay, while offshore are seagrass beds. Terrestrial ecoregion 1301 and marine ecoregion 210.

IX. References

Abell, Robin and 27 others. 2008. Freshwater Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Biogeographic Units for Freshwater Biodiversity Conservation. Bioscience 58:403-414.

Australian Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population, and Communities. Marine Bioregional Plan for the South-west Marine Region. Draft, 20111. www.environment.gov.au/coasts/mbp (accessed July 2, 2011).

Australian Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage, and the Arts. 2008. North-West Marine Bioregional Plan, Bioregional Profile. www.environment.gov.au/coasts/mbp (accessed July 2, 2011).

Australian Heritage Database. www.environment.gov.au/heritage (accessed July 2, 2011).

Awramik, Stanley M. and James P. Vanyo. 1986. Heliotropism in Modern Stromatolites. Science 231:1279-1281.

Awramik, Stanley M. 1971. Precambrian Columnar Stromatolite Diversity: Reflection of Metazoan Appearance. Science 174:825-827.

Bio-Inventory in Oz. 2000. Science 289:1135.

Birds Australia. http://www.birdata.com.au/iba.vm (accessed 7/2/11)

Chen, Min et al. 2010. A Red-Shifted Chlorophyll. Science 329:1318-1319.

Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Organization. Australian Square Kilometer Array Pathfinder. www.atnf.csiro.au/projects/askap/ (accessed 7/2/11).

Flipper Makes a Pass. Science 284:737.

Ginsburg, R.N. 1977. Peculiar Structures. Science 196:780-782. Review of Stromatolites. M.R. Walter, ed. Elsevier, 1976.

Koenig, Robert. 2006a. Candidate Sites for World’s Largest Telescope Face First Big Hurdle. Science 313:910-912.

Koenig, Robert. 2006b. Search for Giant Scope Site Narrows to Two. Science 313:1871.

Olson, David M., et al., 2001. Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Life on Earth. BioScience 51:933-938.

Perkins, Sid. 2011. When Islands Rose, Australian Rainforests Fell. Science Now, 22 June 2011 (http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2011/06/)

Richardson, Sarah. A Slickness Unto Death. Discover 15(4):26 (June 1994).

Sepkoski, J. John, Jr. 1995. Life from the Beginning. Science 268:1206-1207. Review of Early Life on Earth. Stefan Bengtson, ed. Columbia University Press, 1994.

Shark Bay Dolphin Project. http://www.monkeymiadolphins.org/ (accessed 7/2/2011).

Spalding, Mark D. and 14 others. 2007. Marine Ecoregions of the World: A Bioregionalization of Coastal and Shelf Areas. BioScience 57:573-583.

Tourism Western Australia. http://www.westernaustralia.com/ (accessed 7/2/2011).

University of Western Australia. The Murchison Radio-Astronomy Observatory. http://www.astro.uwa.edu.au/ska/mro (accessed 7/4/11)

Western Australia Department of Environment and Conservation. Shark Bay. http://www.sharkbay.org/ (accessed 7/2/11).

Western Australia Department of Environment and Conservation. Park Finder. http://www.dec.wa.gov.au/ (accessed 7/2/11).

Western Australia Department of Environment and Conservation. 2007. Management Plan for the Montebello/Barrow Islands Marine Conservation Reserves, 2007-2017. Management Plan no. 55. http://www.dec.wa.gov.au/ (accessed 7/2/2011).

Western Australian Museum. Marine Life of the Dampier Archipelago. http://wamuseum.com.au/dampier (accessed 7/2/2011).

World Heritage List. http://whc.unesco.org/ (accessed 7/2/2011).

Cebadillas, Islands of the Gulf of California, and El Vizcaino

2011-06-12T23:12:00.002-04:00

Birthplace of the green revolution; marine mammals in a flooded rift valley in the Sonoran Desert, a deeper canyon than the Grand, and cliff dwellings

I. Map boundaries: 20 to 30 degrees North; 108 to 117 degrees West

II. Country (State): Mexico (Baja California, Baja California Sur, Chihuahua, Sinaloa, Sonora)

III. Overview

In the 1940s, the Rockefeller Foundation was working with Mexico to improve its agriculture. The country was in the middle of a devastating wheat stem rust epidemic. The foundation hired Norman Borlaug as a wheat breeder to try to improve resistance to stem rust. The work was taking place at the cooler highlands near Mexico City. When Borlaug learned that an abandoned experiment station was available in the Yaqui Valley of Sonora, he realized that two generations of wheat could be grown per year. First, the wheat could be planted in the summer in Mexico City. Then that seed could be harvested and grown in the winter in Sonora. By breeding two generations per year, the time it takes to breed new hybrid varieties would be cut in half. The Sonoran experiment station was key to developing the high-yield, disease resistant wheat varieties now in use throughout the world. Today, the Normal E. Borlaug Experiment Station in Sonora is operated by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center, and seeds are still being shuttled between Mexico City and the Yaqui Valley (Stokstad 2009). The Yaqui valley marks the transition between the tropical dry forests of Mexico and the Sonoran Desert, which extends north into Arizona.

The Yaqui River is a major tributary to the Gulf of California, or Sea of Cortez, a flooded rift valley complete with volcanoes (on the west shore) and hydrothermal vents where the Pacific plate is separating from the North American plate. Deep-sea hydrothermal vents off of Guaymas Bay were where sulfate-reducing bacteria have been found that can live in hot sediments around hydrothermal vents at temperatures up to 110 degrees C (230 degrees F) (Jorgensen, Isaksen and Jannasch 1992).

Within the Gulf, 232 islands have been designated a world heritage site. The seas around these islands harbor a large number of different types of whales and marine mammals. Loreto Bay National Marine Park, centered on Carmen Island, is known for the greatest diversity of whales. These islands harbor the largest number of island endemics in North America. There are 33 endemic mammals, 3 endemic amphibians, 74 endemic reptiles, and 28 endemic plants (Alvarez-Castaneda et al. 2006). Many of the islands are important bird areas and harbor migratory and breeding waterfowl. An estimated one-third of all waterfowl along the Pacific flyway use San Ignacio Bay in Sinaloa, for example. These bays and national parks in the Gulf, including Santa Maria, Lechuguilla, Ohuira, Tobarito, and Guaymas bays and Cape Pulmo, San Lorenzo, Loreto Bay, and Espiritu Santo parks, are documented in the listing of Ramsar sites and places of interest below. Wilcox (1978) points out that some of these are land-bridge islands, meaning that they have become islands isolated from the mainland as sea level has risen following the Pleistocene glaciation. The dates of isolation range from 5,800 years to 12,000 years ago. According to the theory of island biogeography, these are ‘supersaturated’ faunas that may slowly decrease in diversity with time depending the size of the island and the habitats provided.

The Gulf of California is also the only known location where a grain from the sea was used as a human food source. The plant used was eelgrass, and it was documented to be used by the Seri people in the area of Kino Bay in Sonora. It was one of the most important traditional foods and was still occasionally harvested into the 1970s (Felger and Moser 1973).

The Pacific shores of the Baja California peninsula are also notable for spectacular marine spectacles, including the calving areas for gray and blue whales at Ojo de Liebre, San Ignacio lagoon, and Magdalena Bay. These areas are the northernmost occurrence of mangroves along the Pacific coastal region of North America.

The peninsula itself contains one of the driest deserts in North America, especially around El Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve and Valle de los Cirios. However, the characteristic cardon cacti, rock art, and scattered oases in the Sierra de la Gigantea and southward provide natural history points of interest. At the southern tip of the peninsula, the Sierra de la Laguna provides low-elevation tropical deserts, mid-elevation tropical forests, and a high-elevation conifer forest.

East of the Gulf, the Sonoran Desert in the north transitions into the tropical forests of Sinaloa and the high-elevation oak-pine forests of the Sierra Madre Occidental. The mountains of northern Mexico provide sky islands of habitat for species at the boundary between tropical and temperate zones. The Sinaloa tropical dry forest reaches its northern limit in the Copper Canyon area of Sonora, and receives rain during the summer, fall, and winter. The higher elevations receive snow in the winter. Between the Sonoran Desert and the tropical dry forest is a transition zone of organ pipe cactus-tropical forest that extends along the coast southward into Sinaloa and northward into the Yaqui Valley.

The high mountains of eastern Sonora, eastern Sinaloa, and western Chihuahua are also a hotspot of biological diversity. In Chihuahua, an agreement between US and Mexican conservation groups and a rural land cooperative, or ejido, has resulted in the creation of the Cebadillas preserve, a 10,000-acre tract of ponderosa pine forest used for breeding by the endangered thick-billed parrot (Norris 2002). Also in the region are cliff dwellings. Notable sites that may be visited are at Cuarenta Casas and Huapoca Canyon. Mexico’s highest waterfall is at Basaseachis Cascade National Park, and the Copper Canyon railroad provides access to canyons both deeper and larger than the Grand Canyon of Arizona.

IV. Terrestrial Ecoregions

A. Ecoregions of the Neararctic Biome

Tropical & Subtropical Dry Broadleaf Forests

NA 201, Sonoran-Sinaloan transition subtropical dry forest. This transition between the desert and tropical seasonal forest is characterized by the conspicuous presence of organ pipe cactus in the dry season. During the summer rainy season, other deciduous trees are also noticeable, including several species of Acacia. The valley of the Rio Yaqui and steep cliffs and canyons characterize the ecoregion. A coastal tongue extends southward into Sinaloa. Found in Sinaloa and Sonora.

Tropical & Subtropical Coniferous Forests

NA 302, Sierra Madre Occidental pine-oak forests. These forests occur as isolated sky islands on mountain peaks between 1,500 and 3,300 m in elevation. Drier areas have chaparral and oak-grassland vegetation. The region is known for endemic birds such as the thick-billed parrot, tufted jay, eared quetzal, and green-striped brush finch; 22 endemic reptiles; and 12 endemic amphibians. The mountain air currents are a major migratory pathway for the monarch butterfly. Found in Chihuahua, Sinaloa, and Sonora.

Mediterranean Forests, Woodland, and Scrub

NA 1201, California coastal sage and chaparral. The fire-adapted coastal sage and chaparral plants are interspersed with oak woodlands. Found on Cedros Island in Baja California.

Deserts & Xeric Shrublands

NA 1301, Baja California desert. The mountains, plains, and dunes host dry scrub of cacti, Ambrosia, and Erodium. In low humid areas epiphytes are present. Endemic mammals include the San Quintin kangaroo rat and Baja California rock squirrel. Found on the western side of the Baja California peninsula in Baja California and Baja California Sur.

NA 1306, Gulf of California xeric scrub. The driest desert in Mexico is dominated by creosote and desert burr sage. Scattered oases house palm trees and other non-desert plants. There are 20 genera of plants, nine species of reptile, 12 species of mammal and two species of birds that are endemic. Found in Baja California and Baja California Sur on the coast of the Gulf of California from La Paz northward to San Luis Island.

NA 1310, Sonoran Desert. The desert most famous for the saguaro cactus is actually drier on the Sonora portions of the map and is dominated by creosote bush, ironwood, palo verde and cacti. Found in Baja California north of San Luis Island and Sonora.

Mangrove

NA 1401, Northwestern Mexican Coast mangrove. The northernmost mangroves along the Pacific Coast are dominated by four species. The ecoregion also includes areas of salt-tolerant vegetation in marshes. Big areas are found in Baja California Sur (Magdalena Bay, Ojo de Liebre lagoon, and San Ignacio lagoon; Sinaloa (Lechuquilla Bay-Fuerte delta, San Ignacio Bay, and Santa Maria Bay), and Sonora (Guaymas Bay-Yaqui River delta, Mayo River delta, Ohuira Bay, and Tobarito Estuary).

B. Ecoregions of the Neotropic Biome

Tropical and Subtropical Dry Broadleaf Forests

NT 227, Sierra de la Laguna dry forests. This isolated sky island of habitat contains endemic plants and animals. Dominant trees are mauto (Lysiloma sp.), palo blanco (Lysiloma sp.), cajalosucho (Bursera sp.) and palo zorillo (Albizia sp.). Found in Baja California Sur.

NT 228, Sinaloan dry forests. The northernmost tropical forests extend up into the lower elevations of Copper Canyon. Common trees are kapok, quiebrocha, desert fern, and amapa. Found in Chihuahua, Sinaloa, and Sonora.

Tropical and Subtropical Coniferous Forests

NT 307, Sierra de la Laguna pine-oak forests. Forests of an endemic pine, oaks, Muhlenbergia,and Calliandra are found at higher elevations in the Sierra de la Laguna. There are endemic birds, lizards, and bats. Found in Baja California Sur.

Deserts and Xeric Shrublands

NT 1314, San Lucan xeric scrub. Cacti and yucca, along with drought-tolerant tree species, are found in lowland areas south of La Paz. Found in Baja California Sur.

V. Freshwater Ecoregions

Xeric freshwater and endorheic basins

159. Southern California Coastal-Baja California. Found in Baja California and Baja California Sur. There are no permanent watercourses, and most fish are marine-derived. Groups known to inhabit rivers are from the killifish, lamprey, sculpin, and salminoid families.

160. Sonora. This ecoregion includes Rio Mayo and points north on the east side of the Sea of Cortez. This ecoregion is characterized by endemic fish and snails. Endemics are the Opata sucker and desert chub; near endemics include Sonora chub, Sonora sucker, and Gila topminnow.

161. Guzman-Samalayuca. Located in eastern Sonora and western Chihuahua. The upper elevation headwaters of the Yaqui originally drained eastward to the Rio Grande (Rio Bravo) and have fish characteristic of this watershed, including Bavispe sucker, largemouth shiner, carbonera pupfish, Chihuahua chub, and Cahita sucker.

Tropical and Subtropical Coastal Rivers

162. Sinaloa. This ecoregion includes Rio Fuerte and points south on Pacific coast. The upper elevation headwaters to of the Rio Fuerte, located to the east of the map area, originally drained eastward and are not included in the ecoregion. The ecoregion is dominated by the Poeciliopsis genus of livebearer fishes.

VI. Marine Ecoregions

Temperate Northern Pacific Realm, Warm Temperate Northeast Pacific Province

59. Southern California Bight. Located from El Vizcaino northward.

60. Cortezian. Located in Gulf of California/Sea of Cortez

61. Magdalena transition. Located from San Ignacio lagoon southward on Baja California peninsula.

VII. World Heritage Sites

Islands and Protected Areas of the Gulf of California (IPAGC). This includes nine protected area units, six of which are within the map area. A visitor center is in Kino Bay. The six units shown on the map are:

Islands of the Gulf of California Flora and Fauna Reserve (IGCFFR). This includes 232 islands in Baja California, Baja California Sur, Sinaloa, and Sonora, which are grouped on the map, and described below, by location. Because of the 1,000-km north-south range of this site, islands are grouped in the ‘other points of interest’ list below by bay or other geographic feature where they are located. Terrestrial ecoregions NA 201, NA 1306, NA 1310, NA 1401, and NT 1314; marine ecoregion 60.

San Pedro Martir Island Biosphere Reserve, Sonora. Also a Ramsar site and Important Bird Area. This island supports marine birds and two endemic lizard species. Flora includes a forest of Pachcereus pringlei and meadows of wild poppy. Terrestrial ecoregion NA 1310 and marine ecoregion 60.

El Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve, Baja California Sur. This area stretches from the Gulf to the Pacific and has endemic flora, fossil beds, rock art, marine birds, and marine mammals. Ojo de Liebre and San Ignacio lagoons (designated as separate world heritage sites and described below) are included in the biosphere reserve. The Tres Virgenes volcanic complex, consisting of three volcanoes, is on the east side of the reserve, near the Sea of Cortez. The El Aqguajito caldera is noted for hot springs on its south side. Terrestrial ecoregions NA 1301, NA 1306, and NA 1401; marine ecoregions 59, 60, and 61.

Loreto Bay National Marine Park, Baja California Sur. Includes islands of Blanco, Carmen, Coronados, Danzante, Las Galeras (2 islands), Las Islitas, Mestiza, Montserrat, Pardo, San Cosme, San Damian, Santa Catalina, and Las Tijeras. Also a Ramsar Site. The diversity of marine mammals is higher than elsewhere in Mexico, with blue whales, fin whale, humpbacked whale, orcas, and dolphins. The park also protects mussels and jumbo squid. Seven endemic species of plants are found on the islands. Kayaking and diving are popular activities. Terrestrial ecoregion NA 1306 and marine ecoregion 60.

Cape Pulmo National Marine Park, Baja California Sur. Also a Ramsar Site. The only coral reef in the Gulf of California supports five endangered marine turtles. A shoreline hiking trail goes to the Las Sirenitas rock formations. Ecoregions 60.

Cape San Lucas Flora and Fauna Reserve, Baja California Sur. A sea lion colony is off of Lands End in this reserve. Ecoregion NT 1314 and marine ecoregions 60 and 61.

Rock Paintings of the Sierra de San Francisco, Baja California Sur. This is one of the world’s most outstanding collections of rock paintings, well-preserved in rock shelters and deep canyons and ravines. Motifs are of people and animals. Sites include Flechas, Pintada and Raton caves, along with San Pablo Canyon, which is reached by a two-day mule-back descent. Pintada Cave has a 150-m-high wall of paintings with humans, bighorn sheep, pumas, and deer. Ecoregion NA 1301.

Whale Sanctuary of El Vizcaino, Baja California Sur. The lagoons of Ojo de Liebre and San Ignacio are calving sites and wintering sites for gray whales, blue whales, sea lions, and elephant seals, as well as wintering black brant, pelicans, cormorants, terns, and gulls. Both lagoons are also Ramsar sites, sites in the Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network, and Important Bird Areas. Guerro Negro Lagoon, to the north of Ojo de Liebre, is the world’s largest salt mine but also a site in the Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network. Terrestrial habitats are halophytic grasslands. Terrestrial ecoregions NA 1301 and NA 1401; marine ecoregions 59 and 61.

VIII. Ramsar Sites

Asamblea Coastal Corridor-San Francisquito, Baja California. This coastal area fronting the Canal de las Ballenas supports marine turtles, seagrass beds, and corals. Terrestrial ecoregion NA 1306 and marine ecoregion 60.

Babicora Lagoon, Chihuahua. Also an Important Bird Area. A closed basin of semi-arid grassland surrounded by pine forest is a migratory bird area for white-fronted goose, whimbrel, and Mexican duck also supports five endemic plant species. Terrestrial ecoregion NA 302.

Balandra, Baja California Sur. This coastal wetland in La Paz Bay supports mangroves, breeding pelicans, and marine mammals, including seven of the 11 recognized species of baleen whales and 20 of the 68 species of toothed whales. It is at the boundary of the Nearctic and Neotropical biomes. Terrestrial ecoregion NA 1401 and marine ecoregion 60.

Cape Pulmo National Park, Baja California Sur. See World Heritage sites.

Colorada Flats Lagoon and Santa Maria La Reforma, Sinaloa and Sonora. Includes three major bays, shown as Santa Maria Bay, San Ignacio Bay, and Ohuira Bay on map and described further below. The three bays feature 153 islands, 25 marshes,a nd 18,500 ha of mangroves. Waterfowl include black-vented shearwater and brant. Terrestrial ecoregion NA 1401 and marineecorgion 60.

Ohuira Bay (Agiabampo Estuary), Sinaloa and Sonora. Part of the IPAGC World Heritage Site and IGCFFR. An Important Bird Area. Includes islands of Abanahua, Bleditos, Bledos, La Bocanita, Los Comalitos, Masocahui, Masocarit, Pajaros, Pasotecora, Los Patos, Punta Colorada, El Rancho (3 islands), and Tunosa. The Navopatia Field Station on the estuary is operated by Alamos Wildlands Alliance and Evergreen State College. Terrestrial ecoregion NA 1401 and marine ecoregion 60.

San Ignacio Bay, Sinaloa. Part of the IPAGC World Heritage Site and IGCFFR. Includes islands of El Aguacate, Los Bledos, Cerro Blanco, Las Chivas, Los Cochis, Desoguiara, Diablitos, Guasayeye, Macapule, El Metate, Molcajete, Nescoco, Los Pajaros, Las Pichihuilas, San Ignacio, San Lucas, Tesobiare, La Ventana, Vinorama, and Yoricahui. Terrestrial ecoregion NA 1401 and marine ecoregion 60.

Santa Maria Bay, Sinaloa. Part of the IPAGC World Heritage Site, Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network, and IGCFFR. An Important Bird Area. Includes islands of Altamura, Caballos, Canahual, El Conejo, El Espiritu, La Garrapata, Melendres, El Mero, Miradero de Taviano, Otate, Saliaca, Talchichiltle, La Tembladora, Tunitas (3 islands), Varadito Reef, and Verde. An estimated one-third of all birds traveling along the Pacific flyway spend the winter here. Waterfowl include black-vented shearwater and brant. Terrestrial ecoregion NA 1401 and marine ecoregion 60.

Comondu Wetlands, Baja California Sur. Three large oases in the Sierra La Gigantea support neotropical migratory birds, including the endemic Xantus’s hummingbird. Ecoregion NA 1301.

Giganta Oasis, Baja California Sur. Pools on the eastern side of the Sierra de la Giganta support Ovis canadensis and endemic flora and fauna. Ecoregion NA 1306.

Sierra de la Laguna, Baja California Sur. An Important Bird Area at the tip of the Baja California peninsula contains habitats ranging from desert scrub below 450 m, tropical deciduous forest below 1,000 m, and oak-pine forest to 2000 m. A central meadow was once a lake and is now a designated protected area. An Important Bird Area for Xantus’s hummingbird, gray thrasher, Baird’s junco, and San Luis robin. There are 974 species of plants, 23 percent of which are endemic, including five endemic genera. Birds include Xantus’s hummingbird, gray thrasher, Baird’s junco, and San Luis robin. Ecoregions NT 227, 307, and 1314.

Loreto Bay National Marine Park, Baja California Sur. See World Heritage sites.

Mogote Wetlands, Baja California Sur. These mangroves on La Paz Bay are part of the Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network and support 20,000 birds and sea lions. Terrestrial ecoregion PA 1401 and marine ecoregion 60.

Ojo de Liebre Lagoon, Baja California Sur. See Whale Sanctuary of El Vizcaino world heritage site above.

Pilar Oasis and San Pedro de la Presa Oasis, Baja California Sur. Pilar oasis on the western slope of Sierra El Pilar harbors unique fish fauna, the Peninsula clingfish and killifish. San Pedro de la Presa is an Important Bird Area. Ecoregion NA 1306.

Rasa Island, Baja California. Part of San Lorenzo Archipelago National Park. This volcanic island with three coastal lagoons hosts the entire population of Heerman’s gull and elegant tern and is listed as an Important Bird Area. There are also two endemic reptiles. Terrestrial ecoregion NA 1306 and marine ecoregion 60.

San Ignacio Lagoon, Baja California Sur. See Whale Sanctuary of El Vizcaino world heritage site above.

San Pedro Martir Island, Sonora. See World Heritage sites.

IX. Man and the Biosphere Reserves.

Sierra de Alamos-Rio Cuchajaqui, Sonora. The Alamos-Rio Mayo Important Bird Area includes areas along the Mayo River and extends into Chihuahua. Alamos is a colonial silver mining town and a National Historical Monument. The Sierra de Alamos-Rio Cuchujaqui Flora and Fauna Protection Area is in the hills surrounding the town. Animals present include puma, jaguar, and ocelot. Ecoregion NT 228 and NA 302.

Islands of the Gulf of California. See description under World Heritage Sites.

Sierra de la Laguna, Baja California Sur. See description under Ramsar sites.

El Vizcaino, Baja California Sur. See description under World Heritage Sites.

X. Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network

Colorada Flat Lagoon and Santa Maria Bay, Sinaloa. See Ramsar Sites.

Complejo Ojo de Liebre-Guerro Negro Lagoon. See Whale Sanctuary of El Vizcaino world heritage site above

Complejo San Ignacio, Baja California Sur. See Whale Sanctuary of El Vizcaino world heritage site above.

Ensenada de la Paz, Baja California Sur. An Important Bird Area with nesting California least tern, used by more than 20,000 shorebirds including snowy plover, semipalmated plover, whimbrel, and marbled godwit. Terrestrial ecoregions NA 1306 and NT 1314; marine ecoregion 60.

Magdalena Bay and Almejas Bay, Baja California Sur. Also an Important Bird Area. The area has high levels of endemism in cacti. Pelican, frigatebird, cormorant, brant, and gull numbers are high. Terrestrial ecoregion NA 1401 and marine ecoregion 61.

XI. Other Points of Interest

Sierra de Ajos/Bavispe Flora and Fauna Protected Area, Sonora. This area preserves eight mountain sky islands, two of which extend southward into the map area. Pine and oak forests and chapparal vegetation are present. Ecoregion NA 302.

Alijos Rocks, Baja California Sur. Three jagged rocks in the Pacific Ocean 200 miles west of Magdalena Bay rise up to 34 m above sea level. In addition to visiting seabirds, nesting Leach’s storm petrel, red-billed tropicbird, masked booby, and sooty tern have been reported (Pitman 1985). Marine ecoregion 61.

Bay of Los Angeles, Ballenas Canal, and Salsipuedes Biosphere Reserve, Baja California. Part of the IPAGC World Heritage Site and IGCFFR. Includes islands of Alcatraz, Angel de la Guarda, El Borrego, Bota, Cabeza de Caballo, Calavera, Coronado (Smith), Estanque (Pond), Los Gemelitos, Granito, Mejia, Navio, Pata, El Pescador, Piojo, El Racito, and La Ventana. The Bay of Los Angeles is a station of the Sea Turtle Conservation and Research Center of the National Fisheries Institute (INAPESCA). Angel de la Guarda is an Important Bird Area. Coronado Island contains a 440-m high volcano last reported active in 1539. Terrestrial ecoregion NA 1306 and marine ecoregion 60.

Cascada de Basaseachic National Park, Chihuahua. Walks to a 246-m waterfall are offered. Ecoregions NT 228 and NA 302.

Campanero Mesa Ecological Reserve, Sonora. Ecoregion NA 302.

Benitos Islands, Baja California. An Important Bird Area. Terrestrial ecoregion 1301 and marine ecoregion 59.

Cebadillas (Tutuaca/Bisoloachi parrot reserve), Chihuahua. An Important Bird Area containing the most important breeding area for the thick-billed parrot. Also present is eared quetzal. Ecoregion 302.

Cedros Island, Baja California. The island contains forests of scrub juniper and pine in the center of the island. The Cedros Island oak and Cedros Island pine are endemic species. A submarine volcano was reported off the south coast in 1953. Terrestrial ecoregion NA 1201 and marine ecoregion 59.

Cerocahui, Chihuahua. This is a communal landholding area that offers bird watching and a lookout of the Copper Canyon area. Ecoregion 302.

Cerralvo Canal, Baja California Sur. Part of the IPAGC World Heritage Site and IGCFFR. Includes islands of Ballena, Cerralvo, Espiritu Santo, Gallina, Partida, and San Juan Nepomuceno, Cerralvo is an Important Bird Area. The Espiritu Santo archipelago is a national marine park and whale shark-watching area. Terrestrial ecoregion NT 1314 and marine ecoregion 60.

Concepcion Bay, Baja California Sur. Part of the IPAGC World Heritage Site and IGCFFR. Includes islands of Blanca (Guapa), El Coyote, La Cueva, La Liebre, La Pitahaya, Requeson, San Ramon, and Santa Inez (3 islands). Terrestrial ecoregion NA 1306 and marine ecoregion 60.

Copper Canyon, Chihuahua. The Copper Canyon Railroad (Ferrocarril Chihuahua Pacifico) is the main access route to seven major canyons, in an area that is four times larger than the Grand Canyon and 1800 m deep. This map area shows the western side of the canyon extending northeast from El Fuerte. Ecoregions NT 228 and NA 302.

Cuarenta Casas, Chihuahua. Cliff dwellings overlooking the dramatic Arroyo Garabato Canyon are accessible by trails. Ecoregion NA 302.

El Fuerte, Sinaloa. Noted for river floats and kayak trips on the Fuerte River, as well as excursions into the Copper Canyon area. This is where the railroad begins climbing hills as it heads east from Los Mochis. Ecoregion NT 228.

Sierra de la Giganta, Baja California Sur. An Important Bird Area for gray thrasher and Xantus’s hummingbird. A steep mountain range with high levels of endemism. Hiking and horseback riding are recreational activities available. The road to Mission San Francisco Javier de Vigge-Biaundo passes petroglyphs and streams. Ecoregion 1306.

Guaymas Bay, Sonora. Part of the IPAGC World Heritage Site and IGCFFR. Includes islands of Almagre Chico, Almagre Grande, La Batea, Blanca, Leon Echado, Pajaros, Pastel, Peruano, La Pitahayosa, San Vicente, Tapon, and Tio Ramon. Terrestrial ecoregion NA 1401 and marine ecoregion 60.

Huapoca Canyon, Chihuahua. Trails to cliff dwellings in this area include one that is located behind a waterfall. Ecoregion NA 302.

Kino Bay, Sonora. A museum of the Seri people and a visitor center for the Islands and Protected Areas of the Gulf of California World Heritage site is located here. Terrestrial ecoregion NA 1310 and marine ecoregion 60.

Lechuguilla Bay, Sinaloa. Part of the IPAGC World Heritage Site and IGCFFR. Includes Santa Maria Island. Terrestrial ecoregion NA 1401 and marine ecoregion 60.

Lobos Bay, Sonora. Part of the IPAGC World Heritage Site and IGCFFR. Includes islands of Lobos and Los Mogotones (6 islands). Terrestrial ecoregion NA 1401 and marine ecoregion 60.

Lopez Mateos Port, Baja California Sur. A narrow channel between the port and Magdalena Island provides good whale-watching. Terrestrial ecoregion 1401 and marine ecoregion 61.

Maderas (woods), Chihuahua. An Important Bird Area for thick-billed parrot. Ecoregion 302.

Mulege, Baja California Sur. The Mulege River and Trinidad Canyon are noted for birdwatching, kayaking, and cave paintings. Ecoregion NA 1306.

Natividad Island, Baja California Sur. An Important Bird Area for seabirds. Terrestrial ecoregion 1301 and marine ecoregion 59.

La Pintada, Sonora. An archaeological site with cave paintings. Ecoregion NA 1310.

Promontorio, Chihuahua. This mineral-rich area on the edge of the Tutuaca Flora and Fauna Protection Area has recently been approved for copper, gold, and silver mining. Ecoregion 302.

Pulpito Point, Baja California Sur. This is a Pleistocene-aged obsidian dome east of Concepcion Bay. The Saquicismundo and Los Volcanes geothermal areas are to the south. Ecoregion NA 1306.

La Purisima and San Isidro Oasis, Baja California Sur. An Important Bird Area. Nearby is the Comondu-La Purisima volcanic field. Both are located west of the Sierra de la Giganta. Ecoregion 1301.

San Carlos Port, Baja California Sur. A whale calving area provides good whale-watching opportunities. Terrestrial ecoregion 1401 and marine ecoregion 61.

San Ignacio Oasis, Baja California Sur. An Important Bird Area. Ecoregion 1301.

San Ildefonso Island, Baja California Sur. Part of the IPAGC World Heritage Site and IGCFFR. Terrestrial ecoregion NA 1306 and marine ecoregion 60.

San Jose Canal, Baja California Sur. Part of the IPAGC World Heritage Site and IGCFFR. Includes islands of Las Animas, Habana, Islotes (2 islands), La Morena, San Diego, San Francisco, San Jose, and Santa Cruz. Terrestrial ecoregion NA 1306 and marine ecoregion 60.

San Jose Estuary, Baja California Sur. An Important Bird Area with a trail overlooking a spring-fed marsh. Terrestrial ecoregion NT 1314 and marine ecoregion 60.

San Lorenzo Archipelago National Park. Part of the IPAGC World Heritage Site. Includes islands of Las Animas, Cardonosa, Partida, Rasa, Salsipuedes, and San Lorenzo. Rasa Island is a Ramsar Site (see above under Ramsar sites), Ecoregion NA 1306.

San Luis Island (Salvatierra) and San Luis Gonzaga Island, Baja California. Part of IPAGC World Heritage Site and IGCFFR. These are volcanic islands. Terrestrial ecoregion NA 1306 and marine ecoregin 60.

San Marcos Canal, Baja California Sur. Part of IPAGC World Heritage Site and IGCFFR. Includes islands of El Gallo, San Marcos, and Tortuga. Tortuga is an active volcano located in the central part of the Sea of Cortez with a one-km-wide caldera. Terrestrial ecoregion PA 1306 and marine ecoregion 60.

San Pedro Point-Todos Santos Oasis, Baja California Sur. An Important Bird Area. Todos Santos is known for surfing. Terrestrial ecoregion NT 1314 and marine ecoregion 61.

Sistema de Sierras de la Sierra Madre Occidental, Sonora. Three extensions of the Sierra Madre Occidental mountains extending southward from Arizona and New Mexico are considered an Important Bird Area for the thick-billed parrot. Other birds are elegant trogon, Mexican spotted owl, whiskered screech owl, violet crowned hummingbird, and sulfur-bellied flycatcher. Ecoregion 302.

Sonoran Desert Islands, Sonora. Part of the IPAGC World Heritage Site and IGCFFR. Includes islands in Gulf of California off of Sonora coast, including Alcatraz (Pelicano), Doble, La Foca Rock, La Jama, Patos, La Rasa, San Esteban, San Luis, San Pedro Nolasco, Santa Catarina, Tiburon, Turner’s, and El Venado. Tiburon is owned and managed by the indigenous Seri people, who provide tours of the island. San Pedro Nolasco is an Important Bird Area. Terrestrial ecoregion NA 1310 and marine ecoregion 60.

Tobarito Estuary, Sonora. Part of the IPAGC World Heritage Site and IGCFFR. An Important Bird Area. Includes islands of Huivulai and El Tobarito. Terrestrial ecoregion NA 1401 and marine ecoregion 60.

Tutuaca Flora and Fauna Protection Area, Chihuahua and Sonora. This area protects the headwaters of the Yaqui River. Within the boundaries is the Tutuaca Mountain School at Rancho El Nogal, a sustainable farming demonstration area. Ecoregion NA 302.

Valle de los Cirios Flora and Fauna Protection Area, Baja California. This area preserves wild sections of the Pacific Coast, along with desert flora including cardon cacti and boojum trees. The Jaraguay and San Borja volcanic fields contain numerous cinder cones and lava flows. San Borja is a restored mission. . Ecoregions NA 1301, NA 1306, and NA 1310.

XII. References

Agnerian, Hrayr. 2005. Report on the Promontorio Gold-Copper Exploration Propoerty, Mexico. NI-43-101 Report. Roscoe Postle Associates. http://www.diabras.com/pdf/Promontorio_Technical_Report.pdf (accessed June 4, 2011).

Alamos Wildlands Alliance. http://www.alamoswildlands.org/ (accessed May 29, 2011).

Commission for Environmental Conservation. 1999. North American Important Bird Areas. CEC, Montreal. http://www.cec.org/Storage/41/3373_iba-ang_EN.pdf (accessed May 22, 2011).

Alvarez-Castaneda, Sergio Ticul et al. 2006. Development in the Sea of Cortes Calls for Mitigation. BioScience 56:825-829.

Azure Minerals, Inc. 2011. Environmental Approval Received for Promontorio Drilling. News Release, 11 March 2011. http://www.azureminerals.com.au/reports/AzureReceivesEnvironmentalApprovalforPromontorioDrilling.pdf (accessed June 4, 2011).

Felger, Richard and Mary Beck Moser. Eelgrass (Zostera marina L.) in the Gulf of California: Discovery of Its Nutritional Value by the Seri Indians. Science 181:355-356.

Global Volcanism Program, Smithsonian Institution. http://www.volcano.si.edu/ (accessed June 4, 2011).

Jorgensen, Bo Barker, Mai F. Isaksen, and Holger W. Jannasch. 1992. Bacterial Sulfate Reduction Above 100°C in Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vent Sediments. Science 258:1756-1757.

Macias-Caballero, Claudia, Ernesto C. Enkerlin-Hoeflich and Miguel Anel Cruz. 2003. Thick-billed Parrots in Mexico. Psitta Scene 15(4) (November 2003). http://www.parrots.org/ (accessed june 4, 2011).

National Commission of Protected Natural Areas. http://www.conanp.gob.mx/ (accessed June 4, 2011)

Nature Conservancy. http://parksinperil.org/wherewework/mexico/protectedarea/ajosbavispe.html (accessed June 4, 2011).

Noble, John et al. 2010. Mexico. Lonely Planet Publications.

Norris, Scott. 2002. A U.S.-Mexican Partnership to Save the Parrots of the Cebadillas. Conservation 3 (Summer 2002).

Olson, David M., et al., 2001. Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Life on Earth. BioScience 51:933-938.

Pitman, Robert L. 1985. The Marine Birds of Alijos Rocks, Mexico. Western Birds 16:81-92.

Ramsar Site List. http://www.ramsar.wetlands.org/ (accessed February 1, 2011).

Sonora Tourism. http://www.sonoraturismo.gob.mx/ (accessed June 4, 2011).

Spalding, Mark D. and 14 others. 2007. Marine Ecoregions of the World: A Bioregionalization of Coastal and Shelf Areas. Bioscience 57:573-583.

Stokstad, Erik. 2009. The Famine Fighter’s Last Battle. Science 324:710-712.

Tour by Mexico. http://www.tourbymexico.com/ (accessed June 4, 2011).

Tutuaca Mountain School. http://www.tutuaca.org/ (accessed June 4, 2011).

Vidal, R.M. et al. 2009. Mexico. Pp. 269-280 in C. Devenish et al., eds. Important Bird Areas Americas—Priority Sites for Biodiversity Conservation. BirdLife International, Quito, Ecuador (BirdLife Conservation Series No. 16).

Wells, Jeffrey Vance. 2007. Birder’s Conservation Handbook: 100 North American Birds at Risk. Princeton University Press.

UNESCO-Man and the Biosphere Reserves Directory. http://www.unesco.org/mabdb/br/brdir/directory/database.asp (accessed 5/30/11).

Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network. http://www.whsrn.org/ (accessed 5/30/11)

Wilcox, Bruce A. 1978. Supersaturated Island Faunas: A Species-Age Relationship for Lizards on Post-Pleistocene Land-Bridge Islands. Science 199:996-998.

World Heritage List. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list (accessed 5/22/11).

Rapa

2011-05-15T13:14:00.002-04:00

Trapped at the end of the world; an ecological collapse; a microplate with a new family of crustaceans

I. Map Boundaries: 20 to 30 degrees South, 108 to 117 degrees West

II. Country: Chile (Region V—Valparaiso)

III. Overview

More than 2,300 miles from South America and 1,400 miles from the nearest Polynesian island, nine-mile-wide Easter Island, or Rapa Nui, is remote, so remote that only one influx of people is believed to have settled the island about 900 CE. Once settled, the colonists were likely trapped, setting the stage for one of the most famous human-caused ecological collapses.

Easter is home to more than 900, 50-foot-tall, 250-ton statues carved from the volcanic rock found on the island. These were erected between the 10^th and 16^th centuries and once lined roads leading from the volcanic quarry to other spots on the island. In addition to the statues, the society created ceremonial shrines and the only written language in Oceania. Caves around the coast contain paintings of deities, birds, and fertility symbols.

The grasses and shrubs found when the islands were first seen by Europeans were not the original vegetation. Pollen in swamps indicates the existence of a giant palm and 20 other tree species. The palm was gone by 1450, and other large trees by 1650. Deforestation began around 1280, and resulted in erosion and changes to agricultural practices. Around 1400, islanders began to occupy the uplands and began a labor-intensive gardening method known as stone mulching to decrease evaporation and release nutrients. As wood became scarce, more than 1,000 stone buildings were constructed, some of which were chicken houses. The last statue was carved in 1680. Diamond (2005 and 2007) believes that Easter Island, poor in nutrients and located at the south edge of the tropics, was more fragile than other Polynesian islands and more vulnerable to human impacts. This led to deforestation, loss of palm sap as a food source, switching to grasses and sedges as fuel, establishment of stone mulching, and an abandonment of statue carving (Diamond 2007). Extinctions were not limited to palm trees. There were at least 25 species of seabirds, of which eight to ten no longer breed. There were at least six species of land birds in four families which are now extinct. With the extinction of the trees, it is likely that insects, land snails, and land birds were also affected (Steadman 1995).

From a geologic standpoint, Easter Island sits atop the Sala y Gomez submarine ridge, which trends eastward from the East Pacific Rise. Just to the west of Easter Island are two seamounts that do not reach the surface, Pukao and Moai, and three volcanic fields, Ahu, Umu, and Tupa (Haase, Stoffers and Garbe-Schonberg 1997). The island contains a number of volcanoes and 70 vents. Lava flows are as young as 2,000 years in age (Global Volcanism Program, Smithsonian 2011). The southwestern volcano, Rana Kau, contains a water-filled crater and a ceremonial village on the rim of the crater beneath a cliff. Nearby are the site of fossils of the palm trees that became extinct as islanders cleared the woods. The volcano on the eastern tip, Poike, is known for petroglyphs and standing moai. Terevaka is the youngest volcano, having erupted about 400,000 years ago. Rana Raraku, located on the lower slopes of Terevaka, contains a crater lake and slopes containing scattered moai. Raraku was the quarry for all the island’s statues.

To the northwest of Easter Island is the Easter Island microplate, formed as the Nazca and Pacific plates move away from one another. During a series of submersible dives to hydrothermal vents, the Census of Marine Life project discovered a new family of crustaceans, the squat lobsters, or ‘yeti crab.’ The animal was found at depths of 2,000 m, feeding on hydrothermal vent animals.

IV. Terrestrial Ecoregion

Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forests of the Oceania Biome

111. Rapa Nui and Sala y Gomez Subtropical Broadleaf Forests. The 50 inches of annual rainfall, subtropical latitude, and winter rainy season should be indicative of broadleaf forest vegetation, and indeed the original flora consisted of palms and broadleaf species. The Jubaea palm was present until the 17^th century but it now extinct. It is believed deforestation from felling and burning killed off the long-lived palm trees, and imported rats, which fed on the fruit, were the cause of the extinction. Today the island is covered with grasses and shrubs. There are four terrestrial birds and three marine birds, along with four endemic ferns still present.

V. Freshwater Ecoregions

Australia and Pacific

827. Rapa. The island has freshwater crater lakes but no surface streams.

VI. Marine Ecoregions

Eastern Indo-Pacific Realm, Easter Island Province

163. Easter Island

VII. World Heritage Sites

Rapa Nui National Park. Nominated to the World Heritage List for a powerful, imaginative, and original tradition of monumental architecture, free from any external influence. The park includes the entire island surrounding the settlement of Hanga Roa. Near Hanga Roa is the rock art site of Ana Kai Tangata. To the south is Rana Kau volcano, and to the northeast is Ahu Akivi, with seven standing moai looking toward the sea. All other moai look inland from the sea. At Ana Te Pahu, crops were grown in sunken lava tube caves. To the east are the volcanoes Poike at the eastern tip and Rana Raraku, where the moai were quarried and from where a network of roads led to the rest of the island. Ecoregion OC111.

VIII. References

Abell, Robin et al. 2008. Freshwater Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Biogeographic Units for Freshwater Biodiversity Conservation. BioScience 58:403-414.

Bahn, Paul G. 1996. Easter Island. Page 190 In: Brian M. Fagan, ed. The Oxford Companion to Archaeology. Oxford University Press.

Census of Marine Life. 2005. Yeti Crab. www.coml.org/print/discoveries/species/kiwa_hirsuta (accessed 5/1/11).

Diamond, Jared. 2007. Easter Island Revisited. Science 317:1692-1694.

Diamond, Jared. 2005. Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. Penguin Books.

Eyewitness Travel: Chile and Easter Island. DK Publishing, 2011.

Global Volcanism Program, Smithsonian Institution. http://www.volcano.si.edu/ (accessed 5/1/11).

Haase, Karsten M., Peter Stoffers and C. Dieter Garbe-Schonberg. 1997. The Petrogenetic Evolution of Lavas from Easter Island and Neighboring Seamounts, Near-ridge Hotspot Volcanoes in the Southeast Pacific. Journal of Petrology 38:785-813.

Lewis, Krista. 2010. Did They Fail? Could They Choose? Science 327:413-414. Review of Questioning Collapse: Human Resilience, Ecological Vulnerability, and the Aftermath of Empire. Patricia A. McAnany and Norman Yoffee, eds. Cambridge University Press, 2010.

Olson, David M. et al. 2001. Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Life on Earth. BioScience 51:933-938.

Schenkman, Lauren, ed. 2010. Sacred Roads. Science 328:957.

Schultz, Patricia. 2003. 1,000 Places to See Before You Die. Workman Publishing.

Spalding, Mark D. et al. 2007. Marine Ecoregions of the World: A Bioregionalization of Coastal and Shelf Areas. BioScience 57:573-583.

Steadman, David W. 1995. Prehistoric Extinctions of Pacific Island Birds: Biodiversity Meets Zooarchaeology. Science 267:1123-1131.

Walder, Rebecca. 2006. Americas and the Caribbean. In 501 Must-Visit Destinations. Bounty Books.

World Heritage List. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list (accessed 5/1/11).

Gan, Pearl, and Xiang Rivers

2011-04-10T17:04:00.003-04:00

A land of living fossils; Avatar landscapes in the southeast Chinese Mountains; along the Maritime Silk Road

I. Map boundaries

20 to 30 degrees North; 108 to 117 degrees East

II. Countries

China (Anhui, Chongqing Municipality, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi Autonomous Region, Guizhou, Hainan, Hong Kong, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, Taiwan (Pratas)) and Vietnam (Quang Ninh).

III. Overview

The limestone pinnacles amid lush evergreen forests of the Guizhou Plateau and the Nan Ling (South Mountains) are one of the inspirations for the floating mountains in the recent movie Avatar. In 1955, during botanical exploration of Guangxi Autonomous Region, botanists discovered a conifer that had some resemblance to both pines and firs. Further examination indicated that fossil pollen from this new species dates back to the Cretaceous era (greater than 65 million years ago). Today the Cathay silver fir is considered a living fossil and is known from nine locations in the mountains of southern China, five of which are within the map area. The other locations are just to the west.

Metasequoia, another living fossil, is also found in the map area. This conifer is related to redwood, and is a common fossil in deposits in the badlands of the Dakotas and on Axel Heiberg Island in the Canadian arctic. It is the state fossil of Oregon. However, the latest known fossil occurrence was during the Miocene (from 5 to 24 million years ago). Living trees were discovered by botanical explorers in 1946 in Lichuan, Hubei, in the northwestern map area, and naturally growing trees are now known from Longshan on the Hubei-Hunan border and Sangzhi, which is to the east of Longshan.

Important fossil animal finds have also been made in the map area. Cretaceous formations near the city of Ganzhou, Jiangxi Province, revealed a dinosaur fossil with two shelled eggs, one in each oviduct. These would have been laid one at a time, similar to birds. The dinosaur genus, Sinosauropteryx, has also been found sitting on ring-shaped clutches that contain at least 15 eggs. Multiple egg-laying episodes would be required to lay an entire clutch (Sato et al. 2005). This is an important piece of evidence of the relationship between birds and dinosaurs.

Just to the northwest, in the Hengyang Basin of Hunan Province, important information on mammal evolution and dispersal has been found in sediments from the Paleocene-Eocene boundary (55 million years ago). Fossils from the modern orders Primates, Artiodactyla, and Perissodactyla first appeared in Asia in these sediments. This is earlier than these orders are known elsewhere, suggesting that Asia was the center of origin for many early mammal groups (Bowen et al. 2002).

In the karst areas along the Guangxi-Guizhou border at the west-central part of the map lies Dongge Cave. Stalagmites have been analyzed for oxygen isotope records, and are able to provide a continuous history of the Asian monsoon over the past 9,000 years. Oxygen isotope values become lower as the summer monsoon intensifies. Among the most abrupt events in the Dongge record is the abrupt lowering of monsoon intensity about 4,400 years ago, which would have caused drying (Wang et al. 2005). This is about the time of the collapse of the Neolithic culture in central China.

Off the coast of the Chuanshan Archipelago, a shipwreck from the Song Dynasty (960 to 1279 CE) was found. In 2005, the ship was salvaged by sealing the ship and all its cargo inside a large container and then raising it. The shipwreck contained a debris trail of green porcelain bowls and other relics at least 800 years old. The vessel is expected to shed light on the Maritime Silk Road, the shipping route between China, India, and the Middle East in medieval times (Jiao 2010). Another Maritime Silk Road wreck is off of Nan’ao Island in eastern Guangdong and is being excavated in place (China Central Television 2011).

The forests of the area are biodiverse and a center of endemism, although few original forests remain and much of the region is human-dominated. The forests are in the transition zone between tropical and temperate climates, and those in the mountains are subject to occasional but rare frosts in winter. A severe winter storm unique in the history of southern China occurred in the winter of 2008, and caused extensive damage in Anhui, Guangdong, Guangxi Autonomous Region, Guizhou, Hubei, Hunan, and Jiangxi. Bamboo forests in Jiangxi and the forests of the Nan Ling Nature Reserve in Guangdong were reported to be hard hit (Stone 2008).

Forests in tropical moist regions were not previously believed by ecologists to be a sink for carbon accumulation, but a study of old-growth forests on Mount Dinghu in Guangdong indicates that significant carbon does accumulate in soils under forests (Zhou et al. 2006).

The town of Guiyu in eastern Guangdong is infamous as a site of electronics waste recycling. At one time, as much as 70 percent of the world’s electronics waste was imported into China and much of it ended up in villages in southern China. As a by-product of smelting the waste to obtain gold and other precious metals, lead, dioxins, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, brominated fire retardants, and polybrominated diphenyl ethers are released. These materials are known to cause poisoning and endocrine disruption (Stone 2009).

IV. Terrestrial Ecoregions

Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forests of the Indo-Malayan Biome

IM 118. Jian Nan subtropical evergreen forests. This ecoregion covers the southern China mountains, an area of luxuriant tropical forests and home of tea, citrus, lychee, and longan fruit. The forest dominants on granitic mountains include representatives from the oak, tea, and laurel families, while limestone forests have oaks, elms, hackberry, dogwood and Sapium. Tertiary relicts are Cathay silver fir, yews, and Liriodendron. Rare monkeys, tragopans, storks, and orioles are present. Found in Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi Autonomous Region, Guizhou, Hunan, and Jiangxi.

IM 148, South China Sea Islands. The islands that are high enough support a tropical evergreen forest, although most have more limited vegetation. There is roughly a six-month wet and six-month dry season. Found in Pratas Islands.

IM 149. South China-Vietnam subtropical evergreen forests. Lowland tropical forests on limestone are dominated by plants in the laurel, oak, and mahogany families. Notable animals are hornbills and pangolins. Found in Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi Autonomous Region, Hainan, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, and Macao Special Administrative Region of China and Quang Ninh province of Vietnam.

Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forests of the Paleoarctic Biome

PA 101. Guizhou Plateau broadleaf and mixed forests. This cool, cloudy realm of limestone pinnacles is dominated by plants in the oak, laurel, and tea families. Other common plants include hemlock, maple, rhododendron, Prunus, and fir. Animals include macaques, monkeys, tigers, Sika deer, and leopards. Found in Chongqing Municipality, Guangxi Autonomous Region, Guizhou, Hubei, and Hunan on the map.

PA 415. Changjiang Plain evergreen forests. The broad Yangtze or Chang Jiang (Long River) valley downstream of the Three Gorges originally contained native evergreen oak and laurel forests. The Yangtze River dolphin is found in Poyang Lake, along with Chinese alligator. Found in Anhui, Hubei, Hunan, and Jiangxi within the map area.

V. Freshwater Ecoregions

Southern Asia Region, Tropical and Subtropical Coastal Rivers

759. Hainan. Found on the island of Hainan

767. Coastal Fujian-Zeijang. Found from approximately Shanwei northward including the Han River watershed.

Southern Asia Region, Tropical and Subtropical Rivers and Wetland Complexes

763. Xi Yiang. All of Pearl River tributaries including Xi, Bei, and Dong Rivers and coastal rivers east to Shanwei; includes most of the province of Guangdong, Guangxi Autonomous Region, and northeast Vietnam on the map.

Southern Asia Region, Temperate Floodplain Rivers and Wetlands

766. Lower Yangtze. Includes Anhui, Hubei, Hunan, and Jiangxi provinces on map.

Southern Asia Region, Temperate Upland Rivers

765. Middle Yangtze. Includes Chongqing Municipality, Guizhou, and western Hubei provinces on map.

VI. Marine Ecoregions of the World

Central Indo-Pacific Realm, South China Sea Province

112. Gulf of Tonkin. Found on continental shelf in northwest area of map.

114. South China Sea Oceanic Islands. Found around Pratas Island.

VII. World Heritage Sites

China Danxia, Guangdong, Hunan, and Jiangxi. This group of geological world heritage sites includes six areas of red bed standstone landforms with dramatic pillars and towers, covered in evergreen forests. Three areas are within the map boundaries: Danxia Mountain, in northern Guangdong; Lang Mountain, in southwest Hunan; and Longhu Mountain, in northeastern Jiangxi. Ecoregion IM 118.

Kaiping, Guangdong. The Diaolou defensive towers have been constructed in Kaiping since Ming times (1368 to 1644) in response to local banditry. This site commemorates local tower-building traditions. Ecoregion IM 149.

Lu Mountain National Park, Jiangxi. Mount Lu is the spiritual center of Chinese civilization, a cultural landscape with striking scenic beauty. There are 200 historic buildings. Ecoregion PA 415.

Macao Special Administrative Region, Historic Center. The strategic location of Macao and the special relationship between China and Portugal for more than 400 years are commemorated in this area. Ecoregion IM 149.

South China Karst, Chongqing and Guizhou. This geological world heritage site consists of eight sites; three are within the map area. The Libo karst-Dongduo area (part of the Malao Biosphere Reserve) is cone and tower karst while the Wulong-Qingkou and Wulong-Furong Cave karsts are noted for sinkholes, natural bridges, and caves. Ecoregions IM 118 and PA 101.

Wulingyuan Valley Scenic and Historic Interest Area, Hunan. Includes Zangjiajie National Forest Park. This area of dramatic geologic features contains 3,000 sandstone pillars and peaks, ravines and gorges, waterfalls, caves, and two natural bridges. The Bridge of the Immortals is 357 m above the valley floor and is believed to be the highest natural bridge in the world. The 3,000 plant species are found in evergreen broadleaf forests (below 700 m), mixed evergreen and deciduous forest (700 to 950 m), and deciduous forest (above 950 m). Animals include Chinese giant salamander, Asiatic wild dog, and clouded leopard. An Important Bird Area for pheasants and brown-chested jungle flycatcher. The mountains were one of the inspirations for the floating peaks of the movie Avatar , along with Yellow Mountain in Anhui and the Venezuelan tupuys (Chen 2010; Avatar Blog 2010). Ecoregion PA101.

VIII. Ramsar Sites

Ramsar sites are designated under the UN Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Treaty).

Dongting Lake, Hunan. Three wetland and waterfowl reserves (East, South, and West Dongting Lake) are listed as Ramsar Sites. The lake harbors a finless porpoise. An Important Bird Area with wetlands used by two million migratory birds including Oriental stork, Siberian crane, great bustard. The Chinese sturgeon is also found in the lake. Ecoregion PA415.

Dongzhaigang Nature Reserve, Hainan. This mangrove protected area also has mudflats used by migratory waterfowl. Important Bird Area for black-faced spoonbill, Saunder’s gull, and eastern imperial eagle. Terrestrial ecoregion IM 149 and marine ecoregion 112.

Huidong Harbor Sea Turtle National Nature Reserve, Guangdong. Sandy beaches used by nesting green sea turtles. Terrestrial ecoregion IM 149 and marine ecoregion 113.

Mai Po Marshes and Inner Deep Bay, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. A shallow bay harboring 13 threatened birds including Christmas Island frigatebird, Siberian crane, oriental stork, black-based spoonbill, and Nordmann’s greenshank. An Important Bird Area hosting 88,000 waterfowl in winter. Terrestrial ecoregion IM 149 and marine ecoregion 113.

Poyung Lake Nature Reserve, Jiangxi. The largest freshwater lake in China and a world-famous Important Bird Area used by 100,000 waterfowl and Siberian white cranes. Waterbirds include cranes, storks, swans, and ducks. Ecoregion PA 415.

Shankou Mangrove National Nature Reserve, Guangxi Autonomous Region. A protected mangrove forest with dugong and Chinese dolphin. Also a Man and the Biosphere Reserve and Important Bird Area for black-faced spoonbill. Ecoregion IM 149 and marine ecoregion 112.

Zhanjiang Mangrove National Nature Reserve, Guangdong. A protected mangrove forest with mudflats for migratory waterfowl. Terrestrial ecoregion IM 149 and marine ecoregion 112.

IX. Biosphere Reserves

The world network of biosphere reserves are designated under the Man and the Biosphere Program of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization

Chebaling National Nature Reserve, Guangdong. This reserve focuses on the management of evergreen broadleaf forest by Yao and Han villages. Ecoregion IM 118.

Dinghu Mountain, Guangdong. Known as the green gem of the Tropic of Cancer, this major Buddhist center has rare primary forests that are 400 years old and numerous waterfalls. An Important Bird Area. See the discussion above in the Overview section about carbon accumulation in old-growth forests. Ecoregion IM 118 and IM 149.

Fanjing Mountain Nature Reserve, Guizhou. Evergreen broadleaf forests dominated by chinquapin, tanbark oak, oaks, beeches, and maples are noted for endemic golden monkey and Guizhou snub-nosed monkey. Forests on Fanjing are a mixture of hardwoods and conifers with hemlock, mapls, Rhododendron, Prunus, and fir. The area is also a sacred Buddhist site. Ecoregion IM 118 and PA 101.

Maolan Biosphere Reserve, Guizhou. See description under South China Karst World Heritage Site above.

Shankou Biosphere Reserve, Guangxi Autonomous Region. See description under Ramsar sites above.

X. Other Points of Interest

Babao Mountain Nature Reserve, Guangdong. Important Bird Area for gold-fronted fulvetta, Cabot’s tragopan, fairy pitta, silver oriole, and brown-chested jungle flycatcher. Ecoregion IM 118.

Badagong Mountain Nature Reserve, Hunan. Important Bird Area for pheasants and brown-chested jungle flycatcher. Ecoregion PA 101.

Bamian Mountain Nature Reserve, Hunan. One of the known locations of Cathay silver fir; and an Important Bird Area for tragopan, pheasant, and brown-chested jungle flycatcher. Ecoregion IM 118.

Chauanshan Archipelago, Guangdong. Terrestrial ecoregion IM 149 and marine ecoregion 113. See archaeological discussion in overview section above.

Chebaling, Guangdong. Important Bird Area with white-eared night heron, white-necklaced pheasant, Cabot’s tragopan, and fairy pitta. Ecoregion IM 118.

Chengjia Nature Reserve, Guangdong. Important Bird Area for gold-fronted fulvetta and tragopan. Ecoregion IM 118.

Daming Mountain, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area for white-eared night heron and silver oriole. Ecoregions IM 118 and IM 149.

Daping Mountain Nature Reserve, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area for white-necklaced partridge and brown-chested jungle flycatcher. Ecoregions IM 118 and IM 149.

Dawei Mountain, Hunan. An Important Bird Area for pheasants and brown-chested jungle flycatcher. Ecoregions IM118 and PA 415.

Dayao Mountain Nature Reserve, Guangxi Autonomous Region. One of the known locations of the Cathay silver fir, a living fossil, and an Important Bird Area for white-eared night heron, white-necklaced partridge, Pitta, and gold-fronted fulvetta. Ecoregion IM 118.

Dupangling Nature Reserve, Hunan. Important Bird Area for tragopoan and brown-chested jungle flycatcher. Ecoregion IM 118.

Fancheng Coast, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area harboring black-faced spoonbill. Terrestrial Ecoregion IM 149 and marine ecoregion 112.

Fanjing Mountain Nature Reserve, Guizhou. One of the known locations of Cathay silver fir, a living fossil, and an Important Bird Area for pheasants. Ecoregion IM 118.

Futian Nature Reserve, Guangdong. Important Bird Area with pelicans, egrets, Saunder’s gull. Ecoregion IM 149 and marine ecoregion 113.

Gongping Reservoir, Guangdong. Important Bird Area for pelicans and black-faced spoonbill. Ecoregion IM 149.

Guan Mountain Nature Reserve, Jiangxi. Important Bird Area with pheasants and pittas. Ecoregion PA 415.

Guiyu, Guangdong. Site of electronics waste importation and materials recycling. See discussion above in Overview. Ecoregion IM 149.

Gupo Mountain, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area for white-necklaced partridge and tragopan. Ecoregion IM 118.

Guxiu Nature Reserve, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area with white-necklaced partridge. Ecoregion IM 118.

Hailing Island, Guangdong. Site of the Maritime Silk Road Museum, which opened in 2009 and houses the ongoing excavation of South China Sea No 1, a shipwreck found in the Chaunshan Archipelago. Ecoregion IM 149.

Haiyang Mountain Reserve, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area with Tragopan and Elliot’s pheasant. Ecoregion IM 118.

Heng Mountain, Hunan. One of five sacred mountains of Taoism and the largest group of ancient buildings in China. Ecoregion PA 415.

Hong Lake, Hubei. Important Bird Area with wetlands harbors oriental white stork. Ecoregion PA 415.

Huangsang Nature Reserve, Hunan. Important Bird Area with tragopan, pheasant and brown-chested jungle flycatcher. Ecoregion IM118.

Huashui Mountain, Guangdong. Important Bird Area with white-eared night heron. Ecoregion IM 118.

Huashuichong Reserve, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area with tragopan and white-necklaced partridge. Ecoregion IM 118.

Huping Mountain Nature Reserve, Hunan. Important Bird Area with pheasants, brown-chested jungle flycatcher, and silver oriole. Ecoregion PA 101.

Jiangkou Niaozhou Nature Reserve, Hunan. Important Bird Area with wetland habitat for oriental white stork, swan goose, and Baikal teal. Ecoregion IM 118.

Jiangkou Xiang-Mashi Zhen, Guangdong. Important Bird Area with white-eared night heron. Ecoregion IM 118.

Jiaqiaoling Nature Reserve, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area with tragopan and Elliot’s pheasant. Ecoregion IM 118.

Jinggang Mountains Nature Reserve, Jiangxi. Important Bird Area with tragopans and pheasants. Ecoregion IM 118.

Jiugong Mountain Nature Reserve, Hubei. Important Bird Area with pheasants, Ecoregion PA415.

Jiulian Mountains Nature Reserve, Jiangxi. Important Bird Area with white-eared night heron. Ecoregion IM 118.

Jiuwan Mountain Reserve, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area with white-necklaced partridge and Pitta. Ecoregion IM 118.

Jiuyi Mountain Nature Reserve, Hunan. Important Bird Area with tragopan and brown-chested jungle flycatcher. Ecoregion IM 118.

Lagou Nature Reserve, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area for Elliot’s pheasant. Ecoregion IM 118.

Leigong Mountain Nature Reserve, Guizhou. Important Bird Area for pheasants. Ecoregion PA 101.

Li River, Guangxi Autonomous Region. China’s most famous scenic river through a karst landscape of isolated towers. Ecoregion IM 118.

Ling Canal, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Built in 217 BC, the canal connects north and south China because it connects the Gui/Li River system with the Xiang River which flows north to the Yangtze. Ecoregion IM 118.

Longgan Lake, Hubei. Important Bird Area with wetlands harboring oriental white stork and pittas. Ecoregion PA 415.

Mang Mountain Nature Reserve, Hunan. Important Bird Area with tragoppan and brown-chested jungle flycatcher. Ecoregion IM 118.

Mao’er Mountain Nature Reserve, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area with Tragopan and Elliot’s pheasant. Ecoregion IM 118.

Maozi Feng, Guangdong. Important Bird Area for silver oriole and white-necklaced partridge. Ecoregion IM 118.

Meihua (Plum Blossom) Mountain Nature Reserve, Fujian. Important Bird Area with greater spotted eagle, white-necklaced partridge, tragopans and pheasants. Site of the Chinese Tiger Rewilding and Reintroduction Center. Although the South China Tiger subspecies is likely extinct in the wild, there are efforts to breed and reintroduce tigers (Morell 2007). Ecoregion IM118.

Nan Ling (South Mountains) National Nature Reserve, Guangdong. Important Bird Area. Ecoregion IM 118.

Nan’ao Island, Guangdong. Site of a known Maritime Silk Road shipwreck. See the discussion above in the Overview section. Terrestrial ecoregion IM 149 and marine ecoregion 113.

Nankun Mountain Nature Reserve, Guangdong. Important Bird Area for white-necklaced partridge, Cabot’s tragopan, and fairy pitta. Ecoregion IM 118 and IM 149.

Nanliu River Estuary, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area for Chinese egret, Baikal teal, and Saunder’s gull. Ecoregion IM 149 and marine ecoregion xx.

Nanyue Nature Reserve, Hunan. Important Bird Area with brown-chested jungle flycatcher. Ecoregion PA 415.

Pingnan Dapeng, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area with white-eared night heron and Pitta. Ecoregion IM 118.

Pratas Island (Dongsha), Taiwan. This uninhabited coral atoll in the South China Sea is administered by Taiwan. Ecoregion IM 149.

Rong River Estuary, Guangdong. Important Bird Area for black-faced spoonbill. Ecoregion IM 149 and marine ecoregion 113.

Sansuo Nature Reserve, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area with Elliot’s pheasant. Ecoregion IM 118.

Sijian Mountain Reserve, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area with white-necklaced partridge. Ecoregion IM 118.

Taipa-Coloane Wetland, Macao Special Administrative Region. Important Bird Area for black-faced spoonbill. Area not labeled on map. Ecoregion IM 149 and marine ecoregion 113.

Taohongling Sika Deer Nature Reserve, Jiangxi. Important Bird Area with yellow bunting. Ecoregion PA 415.

Tao Po Kau, Shing Mun, and Tai Mo Mountain, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. Important Bird Area for fairy pitta and brown-chested jungle flycatcher. Ecoregion IM 149.

Taoyuandong Nature Reserve, Hunan. Important Bird Area with pheasant and brown-chested jungle flycatcher. Ecoregion IM 118.

Tian’ezhou, Hubei. Important Bird Area with wetlands. Ecoregion PA 415.

Tianmen Mountain Nature Reserve, Hunan. Important Bird Area with tragopan and pheasant. Ecoregion PA101.

Tianping Mountain (Huaping Mountain Nature Reserve), Guangxi Autonomous Region. One of the known locations of Cathay silver fir, a living fossil; and an Important Bird Area with tragopan, Elliot’s pheasant, and gold-fronted fulveta. Ecoregion IM 118.

Weizhou Island, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area for Chinese egret and fairy pitta. Ecoregion IM 149.

Xiaoxi Nature Reserve, Hunan. Important Bird Area with brown-chested jungle flycatcher. Ecoregion PA 101.

Xianhu Reservoir, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area with white-eared night heron. Ecoregions IM 118 and IM 149.

Xieyang Island, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area with fairy pitta. Ecoregion IM 149.

Xijin Reservoir, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area for waterbirds such as grebes and coots. Ecoregion IM 149.

Xiqiao Mountain, Guangdong. A massive Buddha is reached by a one-hour hike. Ecoregion IM 149.

Xunle Reserve, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area with white-necklaced partridge. Ecoregion IM 118.

Yindian Mountain and Xiling Mountain Ranges, Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Areas for tragopan and Pitta. Ecoregion IM 118.

Yuanbao Mountain-Gunbei Laos Mountain., Guangxi Autonomous Region. Important Bird Area with white-necklaced partridge. Ecoregion IM 118.

Yun Mountain Nature Reserve, Hunan. Important Bird Area with pheasants and brown-chested jungle flycatcher. Ecoregion IM118.

Ziyun Wafeng Mountains Nature Reserve, Hunan. One of the known locations of Cathay silver fir, and an Important Bird Area with tragopan. Ecoregion IM 118.

XI. References

Abell, Robin and 27 others. 2008. Freshwater Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Biogeographic Units for Freshwater Biodiversity Conservation. BioScience 58:403-414.

Avatar Blog, June 2, 2010. http://avatarblog.typepad.com/avatar-blog/2010/06/where-did-the-landscapes-in-avatar-come-from-find-out-about-james-camerons-real-world-inspiration.html (accessed April 3, 2011).

Birdlife International. 2004. Important Bird Areas in Asia. Birdlife Conservation Series No. 13. http://www.chinabirdnet.org/iba/China.pdf (accessed April 10, 2011).

Bowen, Gabriel J. et al. 2002. Mammalian Dispersal at the Paleocene/Eocene Boundary. Science 295:2062-2065.

Brown, Jackum, Kieran Fogarty and Jo Archer. 2007. Asia. In Emma Beare, ed. 2006. 501 Must-Visit Natural Wonders. Bounty Books.

Callaghan, Christopher B. 2009. The Cathay Silver Fir: Its Discovery and Journey Out of China. Arnoldia 66 (3):15-25.

Chen, Maverick. 2010, February 12. Take a Trip to the Real Avatar Mountains. http://www.china.org.cn/travel/2010-02/12/content_19417589.htm (accessed April 3, 2011).

China Central Television 2011. Underwater Archaeological Investigation for Nan’ao No. 1. http://english.cntv.cn/english/special/nanao/homepage/index.shtml (accessed April 3, 2011).

Clary, Jordan. 2008. Exploring Karst in Guilin, China. Geotimes, July 2008. Published online at http://www.geotimes.org/archives2/index.html (accessed 3/27/11).

Harper, Damian et al. 2007. China. Lonely Planet.

International Union for the Conservation of Nature. Metasequoia glyptostroboides. http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/details/32317/0 (accessed 3/27/11)

Howe, Kenneth. 2003. Out of Africa, Into Uncertainty. The Wall Street Journal, September 4.

Jiao, Li. 2010. Unprecedented Excavation Brings Maritime Silk Road to Life. Science 328:424-425.

Kuhn, Anthony. 2010. The ‘Other’ Silk Road: China Peers Into Maritime Past. All Things Considered, National Public Radio Broadcast, July 2, 2010. Available at http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=128113397 (Accessed April 3, 2011).

Merrill, E.D. 1948. A Living Metasequoia in China. Science 107:140.

Morell, Virginia. 2007. Can the Wild Tiger Survive? Science 317:1312-1314.

Olson, David M., et al., 2001. Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Life on Earth. BioScience 51:933-938.

Riley, Laura and William. 2005. Nature’s Strongholds. Princeton University Press.

Sato, Tamaki, Yen-nien Cheng, Xiao-chun Wu, Darla K. Zelenitsky, and Yu-fu Hsiao. 2005. A Pair of Shelled Eggs Inside a Female Dinosaur. Science 308:375.

Spalding, Mark D. and 14 others. 2007. Marine Ecoregions of the World: A Bioregionalization of Coastal and Shelf Areas. BioScience 57:573-583.

Stone, Richard. 2009. Confronting a Toxic Blowback from the Electronics Trade. Science 325:1055.

Stone, Richard. 2008. Ecologists Report Huge Storm Losses in China’s Forests. Science 319:1318-1319.

Tan, Amy. 2008. Village on the Edge of Time. National Geographic 213(5):102-125 (May).

Walder, Rebecca, Jackum Brown and David Brown. Asia. In Emma Beare, ed. 2006. 501 Must-Visit Destinations. Bounty Books.

Wang, Yongjin et al. 2005. The Holocene Asian Monsoon: Links to Solar Changes and North Atlantic Climate. Science 308:854-857.

World Heritage List. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list (accessed 11/6/10).

UNESCO-MAB Biosphere Reserve Directory. http://www.unesco.org/mabdb/br/brdir/directory/database.asp (accessed 11/6/10).

Zhou, Guoyi et al. 2006. Old-Growth Forests Can Accumulate Carbon in Soils. Science 314:1417.

Rowley Shoals

2011-03-01T22:28:00.002-05:00

An eighty-mile beach, pristine reefs, and Australia’s oil field

I. Map boundaries: 10 to 20 degrees South; 112 to 120 degrees East

II. Countries (Provinces): Australia (Western Australia), Indonesia (East Nusa Tenggara [Southeast Islands]).

III. Overview

The Indian Ocean that dominates this map area marks the transition between the equatorial forests to the north and the desert to the south. Upper surface layers of the ocean are occupied by Indonesian throughflow waters, which are warm and of low salinity. These waters flow toward the poles because the lower density causes a difference in sea level height between the Pacific and Indian Oceans.

In between is the Rowley Shoals, a chain of three diverse coral reefs and islands preserved as marine protected areas. To the north of Rowley Shoals, marine canyons associated with upwellings enhance biological productivity and attract predatory fish, sharks, toothed whales, and dolphins. To the west of the Rowley Shoals is the Exmouth Plateau, a now-submerged leftover fragment from continental drift which is attached to western Australia. The plateau is 500 to 5,000 m in depth and is dotted with pinnacles. The extensive shallow continental shelf off of Western Australia shows enhanced fish diversity. Of the 500 fish species, 76 are endemic to Australia. Rowley Shelf is the location of Australia’s largest oil field, the North West Shelf Venture. A pipeline takes the oil to shore from the vicinity of Rankin Shoal.

The mouth of the DeGrey River extends into this map area. This isolated freshwater drainage harbors endemic fish species. To the east is Cape Keraudren and the beginning of Eighty-Mile Beach, an area of extensive tidal range and a wetland of international importance for shorebirds. The marshes of Eighty-Mile Beach contain freshwater springs, remnants of a wetter time in the geologic history of this area.

In the northeast edge of the map, Sumba is a non-volcanic island of low limestone hills and grasslands. Stone megaliths are present over much of the island, and endemic birds are found in remaining dry forest. The southwestern coast is known as a surfer’s paradise.

IV. Terrestrial Ecoregions

All are in the Australasia (AA) Biome

Tropical and Subtropical Dry Deciduous Forests

AA 203, Sumba Deciduous forests. This is mostly a grassland and savanna ecosystem; however, moist lowland evergreen forests are found in the southern coastal areas. An endemic sundew is found in the savannas, and the island has seven endemic birds. Found on Sumba Island in the East Southeast Islands Province, Indonesia.

Tropical and Subtropical Grasslands, Savannas, and Shrublands

AA706, Kimberly tropical savanna. This high-grass savanna has isolated trees and shrubs such as eucalyptus, kakadu plum and baobab; trees in coastal areas include 11 species of mangrove. The summer wet season is from October to March. Found in Western Australia adjacent to Eighty-Mile Beach.

Deserts and Xeric Shrublands

AA1307, Pilbara shrublands. Spinifex grass grows in clumps and rings, called hummocks. Occasional mulga trees dot the area. Found in Western Australia along the DeGrey River.

V. Freshwater Ecoregions of the World

Southern Asia Region

Tropical and Subtropical Coastal Rivers

748. Lesser Sunda Islands. Found on Sumba.

Xeric Freshwaters and Closed Basins

802. Pilbara. Found from the mouth of the DeGrey River west.

804. Paleo. Found to the east of the mouth of the DeGrey River. This area has isolated saline lakes but no permanent, fish-inhabited waterways.

VI. Marine Ecoregions of the World

Central Indo-Pacific Realm, Western Coral Triangle Province

132. Lesser Sunda. Found along coast of Sumba.

Central Indo-Pacific Realm, Northwest Australian Shelf Province

144. Exmouth to Broome. Found along the Rowley Shelf and Rowley Shoals of Western Australia.

VII. Ramsar Sites (Wetlands of International Importance)

Eighty-Mile Beach, Western Australia. This coastline is noted for large tidal mudflats and marshlands. Springs in the marshlands are a remnant of a paleoriver system that existed when the climate was wetter. The area harbors 300,000 migratory wading birds in the spring and is also an Important Bird Area for bar-tailed godwit and great knot. Flatback turtles use the beach for nesting. Terrestrial ecoregion AA706 and marine ecoregion 144.

VIII. Other points of interest

Bedout Island Nature Reserve, Western Australia. An Important Bird Area with the world’s largest population of brown booby and 19 percent of the world population of the lesser frigatebird. Terrestrial ecoregion AA1307 and marine ecoregion 144.

Cape Keraudren Reserve, Western Australia. Managed by the Shire of East Pilbara, this picturesque beach and white sand area is the western edge of the Eighty-Mile Beach Ramsar site. Terrestrial ecoregion 706 and marine ecoregion 144.

Glomar Shoals, Western Australia. This shallow area along the continental shelf (26 to 70 m) shows increased biological productivity. Marine ecoregion 144.

Mermaid Reef Marine National Nature Reserve. This flat reef is 500 to 800 m wide encircling a large lagoon up to 20 m deep. The area is completely submerged at high tide. Marine ecoregion 144.

North West Shelf Venture, Western Australia. Australia’s major offshore oil and gas producing area, producing 40 percent of Australia’s oil and gas. North Rankin A platform is the world’s largest gas-producing platform. Marine ecoregion 144.

North Turtle Island Nature Reserve, Western Australia. Terrestrial ecoregion AA1307 and marine ecoregion 144.

Rowley Shoals Marine Park, Western Australia. The park consists of Clerke and Imperieuse Reefs off Western Australia. For divers, the walls drop 230 m while the shallow lagoons have coral, fish and potato cod with no fear of people. Other notable sites are coral gardens, giant clams, and shellfish. The area has unique sponge assemblages and diverse shark fauna. Cunningham and Bedwell Islands are nesting areas for red-tailed tropicbirds, white-tailed tropicbirds, and little terns. Noted as the best shelf-edge ocean reef in Australia. Marine ecoregion 144.

IX. References

Abell, Robin and 27 others. 2008. Freshwater Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Biogeographic Units for Freshwater Biodiversity Conservation. BioScience 58:403-414.

Australian Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population, and Communities. Mermaid Reef Marine National Nature Reserve. http://www.environment.gov.au/coasts/mpa/mermaid/index.html (Accessed 19 February 2011).

Australian Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage, and the Arts. 2008. The North-West Marine Bioregional Plan Bioregional Profile (www.environment.gov.au/coasts/mbp/publications/north-west/

BirdLife International. 2011. BirdLife’s Online World Bird Database. Accessed 19 February 2011 at http://www.birdlife.org/

Burbridge, Andrew A., Phillip J. Fuller, J.A.K. Lane, and Susan A. Moore. 1987. Counts of Nesting Boobies and Lesser Frigate-birds in Western Australia. Emu 87:128-129.

East Pilbara Shire. Cape Keraudren Reserve. http://www.eastpilbara.wa.gov.au/inter_site/php_scripts/see_ck.php (accessed February 19, 2011).

Heirtzler, James R. et al. 1973. Age of the Floor of the Eastern Indian Ocean. Science 180:952-954.

North West Shelf Venture. 2011. www.woodside.com.au/Our+Business/North+West+Shelf/ (accessed 19 February 2011).

Olson, David M., et al., 2001. Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Life on Earth. BioScience 51:933-938.

Oppo, Delia W. and Yair Rosenthal. 2010. The Great Indo-Pacific Communicator. Science 328:1492-1493.

Ramsar Sites Information Service. http://ramsar.wetlands.org/ (Accessed 19 February 2011).

Spalding, Mark D. and 14 others. 2007. Marine Ecoregions of the World: A Bioregionalization of Coastal and Shelf Areas. Bioscience 57:573-583.

Western Australia Department of Environment and Conservation. Rowley Shoals Marine Park. http://www.marineparks.wa.gov.au/dive-in-to-marine-parks/index.html (accessed 19 February 2011).

Western Australia Department of Environment and Conservation. Park Finder. http://www.dec.wa.gov.au/component/option,com_hotproperty/Itemid,755/ (accessed 19 February 2011).

World Database of Protected Areas. http://www.protectedplanet.net/ (accessed 19 February 2011).

Clarion, Roca Partida, and Shimata

2011-02-05T16:48:00.002-05:00

Galapagos of Mexico; hot spot volcanoes on the sea floor

I. Map boundaries: 10 to 20 degrees North; 112 to 120 degrees West

II. Country (State): Mexico (Colima)

III. Overview

Isolated islands are noted for endemic plants and animals. The four Revillagigedo Islands formed on the East Pacific Rise or just to the west of the plate boundary between the Pacific and Rivera plates. Clarion Island, shown on this map, is 700 km southwest of the tip of Baja Peninsula and 1,000 km west of the state of Colima in Mexico. On Clarion, 14 of the 16 bird species are endemic, and there are an endemic lizard and snake. Approximately 26 percent of the plants are endemic. This endemism has earned the Revillagigedo Island chain the nickname of the Galapagos of Mexico. The rich marine fauna has been protected by the establishment of a nature reserve, but several articles not illegal fishing, and introduced sheep, pig, and rabbit, all of which compete with endemic flora and fauna, are the subject of control efforts.

To the east of Clarion is Roca Partida, or Broken Rock, which is essentially a sea stack sticking out of the Pacific Ocean. No vegetation is present, but the rock is used by nesting seabirds. To the southwest of Clarion is Shimata Seamount, which does not surface. It is believed to be a hotspot volcano of a geologically young age (The seafloor from which it rises is less than 20 million years old).

IV. Terrestrial Ecoregions

Tropical and Subtropical Dry Broadleaf Forests of the Neotropic Biome

NT 216, Islas Revillagigedo dry forests. Sparse forests of Conocarpus, Hibiscus, Ficus, and Opuntia are interspersed with grasses. Found on Clarion Island.

V. Marine Ecoregions

Tropical Eastern Pacific Realm, Tropical East Pacific Province

164. Revillagigedos. Found in the seas around Clarion, Roca Partida, and Shimata Seamount.

VI. Ramsar Site

Reserva de la Biosfera Archipielago de Rivillagigedo. This area includes Clarion, Roca Partida and two other more easterly islands managed by the Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources and Fisheries, National Institute of Ecology, Mexico. Clarion Island consists of a large grass-covered plateau with low shrubs and trees on the cliffs. There are three mountains on Clarion, which was formed by volcanic eruptions in Miocene to Eocene times. Clarion contains 43 species of plants, 26 percent of which are endemic. All terrestrial animals, including a lizard and snake, are endemic. There are 16 species of birds, 14 of which are endemic. The area is an Important Bird Area for the Clarion burrowing owl, Clarion wren,Clarion mourning dove, and Townsend’s shearwater. The island is a nesting area for four species of sea turtles—leatherback, olive ridley, hawksbill, and green turtle. Offshore, the area was noted for hammerhead sharks, giant Pacific mantas, and yellowfin tuna; however, illegal fishing has depleted these resources. Roca Partida (Broken Rock) is part of the reserve and is a nesting area for seabirds such as the Nazca booby, brown booby, sooty tern, and brown noddy. Ecoregion NT 216 and marine ecoregion 164.

VII. Other Point of Interest

Shimata Seamount (Hurricane Bank). Located to the southwest of Clarion, this volcano rises to within 50 m of the surface. It is believed to be a hotspot volcano because it is not on a plate boundary and is 600 km to the west of the Mathematician seamounts, which represent a plate boundary along the East Pacific Ridge. The seamount is noted as a good tuna fishing area.

VIII. References

Commission for Environmental Conservation. 1999. North American Important Bird Areas. CEC, Montreal. www.cec.org/storage/41/3373-iba-ang-EN.pdf (accessed February 1, 2011).

Engel, A.E.J. and Celeste G. Engel. 1964. Igneous Rocks of the East Pacific Rise. Science 146:477-485.

Graham, David W. et al. 1988. He, Pb, Sr, and Nd Isotope Constraints on Magma Genesis and Mantle Heterogeneity Beneath Young Pacific Seamounts. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 99:446-463.

Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources and Fisheries, National Institute of Ecology, Mexico. http://www2.ine.gob.mx/publicaciones/libros/2/revill.html (accessed January 30, 2011).

Olson, David M., et al., 2001. Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Life on Earth. BioScience 51:933-938.

Ramsar Site List. http://www.ramsar.wetlands.org/ (accessed February 1, 2011).

Seamounts Online. Seamounts.sdsc.edu (accessed February 1, 2011).

Revillagigedo Islands Overview. www.seawatch.org/reports/revillagigedoislands.php (accessed February 1, 2011).

Spalding, Mark D. and 14 others. 2007. Marine Ecoregions of the World: A Bioregionalization of Coastal and Shelf Areas. BioScience 57:573-583.

Vidal, R.M. et al. 2009. Mexico. Pp. 269-280 in C. Devenish et al., eds. Important Bird Areas Americas—Priority Sites for Biodiversity Conservation. BirdLife International, Quito, Ecuador (BirdLife Conservation Series No. 16).

World Heritage List. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list (accessed 11/6/10).

Hundred Islands, Macclesfield, and Palawan

2011-01-17T22:29:00.003-05:00

Giant clams and an underground river

I. Map boundaries: 10 to 20 degrees North; 112 to 120 degrees East

II. Countries: Paracel Islands and Macclesfield Bank (occupied by China), Philippines (Palawan, Pangasinan, and Zambales), and Spratley Islands (China, Philippines, Taiwan, and Vietnam occupy islands in this map area).

III. Overview

In the Lingayan Gulf off of the Philippine province of Pangasinan, fish and shrimp pens fill shallow tidal areas that once housed mangroves. Because mangroves can process fertilizers and nutrients, an integrated aquaculture could be developed that allows both mangroves and shrimp pens to coexist. Mangroves, seagrass beds, and coral reefs bordering the 7150 Philippine islands contribute to the livelihood and well-being of coastal communities by supporting fish, shellfish, shrimp while providing coastal protecting, erosion control, and nutrient recycling. The Philippines has ‘greenbelt’ laws that require a mangrove strip of 50 to 100 m facing the open sea (Primavera 2005). On the west side of the same gulf is the Hundred Islands National Park, a scenic area with hundreds of small islands shaped like mushrooms. The area is noted for its giant clams, which are the subject of research at Bolinao Marine Laboratory. The gulf was the site of World War II battles.

On the west coast of Luzon Island, the coastline of the Zambales Province provides offshore islands noted for snorkeling. In the southeast corner of the map is Palawan Province which has unique rainforest flora and fauna. The Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park was established as a result of a debt-for-nature swap and protects a rugged karst landscape. Endemic animals include a bearcat, mousedeer, parrots, hornbills, and pheasants. Palawan is also known for pristine beaches, reef diving in Honda Bay, and waterfall touring. To the north of the island, but still part of the province of Palawan, are the Calamian Islands, which are important areas for rare birds. The entire Philippine province of Palawan is managed as an international biosphere reserve.

The South China Sea is dotted with reefs of the Paracel and Spratley archipelagoes, as well as the more isolated Macclesfield Bank and Scarborough Shoal. The Paracel Islands are occupied by China, claimed by Taiwan and Vietnam, and consist of 30 islets. Macclesfield Bank is one of the largest atolls in the world and claimed by China, Taiwan, Philippines and Vietnam. Scarborough Shoal is claimed by China, Philippines, and Taiwan. Because of their strategic value, the individual Spratley islands are occupied by surrounding countries. On the map area, Itu Aba is occupied by Taiwan; Flat, Lankiam, Loaita, Nanshan, Northeast Cay, Thitu, and West York are occupied by the Philippines, and Sandy and Southwest Cay are occupied by Vietnam.

IV. Terrestrial Ecoregions

Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forests of the Indo-Malayan Biome

IM 123, Luzon rain forests. These lowland evergreen dipterocarp rain forests grade to mangroves and Barrintonia trees near the coast. The forests are dry from November to April and wet from May to October. Flying fox bats are the largest bats in the world. There are 34 near-endemic birds and unique mammals such as the Philippine warty pig, Philippine brown deer, Malay civet, and common palm civet.

IM 143, Palawan rain forests. These lowland evergreen dipterocarp rain forests have a short one- to three-month dry season from November to May. Some forest areas are deciduous during this period. The St. Paul Mountains and El Nido areas are spectacular karst landscapes with cliffs and caves. The area is noted for endemic mammals including a bearded pig, tree squirrel and a rat. The Calamian deer is found only on the islands of Busuanga, Culion and Calauit. There are 20 restricted-range birds and 2,000 species of plants. Found in Palawan and the Calamian Islands.

IM 148, South China Sea Islands. The islands that are high enough support a tropical evergreen forest, although most have more limited vegetation. There is roughly a six-month wet and six-month dry season. The 600 coral reef islands of the Spratleys barely barely surface and are mostly devoid of vegetation but could support forest vegetation. Found in the Paracel and Spratley Islands.

V. Freshwater Ecoregions of the World

Southern Asia Region, Tropical and Subtropical Coastal Rivers

755. Northern Philippine Islands. Found in Pangasinan and Zambales.

756. Palawan-Busuanga-Mindoro. Found in Palawan.

VI. Marine Ecoregions of the World

Central Indo-Pacific Realm, South China Sea Province

112. Gulf of Tonkin. Found on continental shelf in northwest area of map.

114. South China Sea Oceanic Islands. Found around Macclesfield Bank, Paracel Islands, Scarborough Shoal, and Spratley Islands.

Central Indo-Pacific Realm, Western Coral Triangle Province

126. Palawan/North Borneo. Found along the coast of Palawan and Calamian Islands.

127. Found along the coast of Luzon and Cabra Island.

VII. World Heritage Site

Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park, Palawan, Philippines. The limestone ridges around Mount St. Paul are a karst landscape with unusual rock formations and an 8.2-km long underground river. Large chambers in the cave are 120 m wide and 60 m high. The river emerges into the sea and is subject to tides. Unusual animals are Palawan tree shrew, Palawan porcupine, Palawan stink badger. Birds include blue-napped parrot, Tabon scrubfowl, hill myna, and Palawan hornbill. The area is managed by the city of Puerto Princesa. Terrestrial ecoregion IM 143 and marine ecoregion 126.

VIII. Biosphere Reserve

Palawan. The entire Philippine province of Palawan is included in the biosphere reserve. St. Paul Subterranean River, Malampaya Sound, El Nido-Tatay, Culion, Busuanga, and Calauit are shown on the map. Terrestrial ecoregion IM 143 and marine ecoregion 126.

IX. Other points of interest

Bolinao, Pangasinan, Philippines. Noted for its caves and waterfalls; home of the Bolinao Marine Laboratory. Ecoregion IM 123.

Busuanga Island, Palawan, Philippines. An Important Bird Area for blue headed racquet-tail, Palawan hornbill, and Philippine cockatoo. Mammals include Palawan stink-badger, Palawan tree shrew, Palawan flying fox, bearded pg, leopard cat, Palawan porcupine, and short-tailed mongoose. Ecoregion IM 143.

Calauit Game Preserve and Wildlife Sanctuary, Palawan, Philippines. Noted or introduced African wildlife, this area lso harbors the Calamian deer, Palawan Pheasant peacock, balabac mousedeer and Palawan bear cat. It is an Important Bird Area for grey imperial-pigeon, blue-headed racquet-tail, Palawan hornbill and Chinese egret. Ecoregion IM 143.

Culion Island, Palawan. Once a leper colony, this is an Important Bird Area for Philippine cockatoo, blue-headed racquet-tail and Palawan hornbill. Mammals included the bearded pig and Calamian hog-deer. Ecoregion IM 143.

El Nido-Taytay Managed Resource Protected Area, Palawan, Philippines. The Bacuit Archipelago contains rugged islands with limestone cliffs, beaches and mangroves, home of Malayan pangolin, dugong, and Palawan peacock-pheasant. Terrestrial ecoregion IM 143 and marine ecoregion 126.

Hundred Islands National Park, Pangasinan, Philippines. Managed by the City of Alaminos, this area is composed of 123 mushroom-shaped islands in Lingayan Gulf. It is one of the national geologic monuments of the Philippines with giant clams visible offshore. Noted for snorkeling, scuba diving, kayaking and birdwatching. Terrestrial ecoregion IM 123 and marine ecoregion 127.

Malampaya Sound Land and Seascape Protected Area, Palawan. This area contains habitat for the bottlenosed and Irrawady dolphin. Terrestrial ecoregion IM 143 and Marine ecoregion 126.

Zambales Mountains, Pangasinan and Zambales, Philippines. An Important Bird Area for flame-breasted fruit dove, spotted imperial-pigeon, green-faced parrotfinch, and furtive flycatcher. The old growth dipterocarp forest also has horseshoe bats and fruit bats. Hiking trips to Mount Tapulao can be arranged in Iba.

X. References

Abell, Robin and 27 others. 2008. Freshwater Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Biogeographic Units for Freshwater Biodiversity Conservation. Bioscience 58:403-414.

Alaminos City. Hundred Islands National Park. http://www.hundredislands.ph/ (accessed 1/15/11).

Bloom, Greg, Michael Grosberg, Virginia Jealous, and Piers Kelly. 2009. Philippines. Lonely Planet Publications.

Brown, Jackum, Kieran Fogarty and Jo Archer. 2007. Asia. In Emma Beare, ed. 2006. 501 Must-Visit Natural Wonders. Bounty Books (Palawan).

BirdLife International. 2011. BirdLife’s Online World Bird Database. Accessed January 14, 2010, at http://www.birdlife.org/

Bolinao Marine Laboratory, Marine Sciences Institute, University of Philippines, Diliman. http://www.msi.upd.edu.ph/bml/history.html (accessed 1/17/11).

El Nido Municipal Tourism Office. 2010. http://www.elnidotourism.com/ (accessed 1/15/11).

Global Security.org. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/images/spratmap.gif (Accessed 1/15/11).

Olson, David M., et al., 2001. Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Life on Earth. BioScience 51:933-938.

Palawan Council on Sustainable Development. http://www.pcsd.ph/ (accessed 11/13/10).

Pangasinan Travel Site. http://travel.pangasinan.gov.ph/Places/100-island/100-island.htm (accessed 1/15/11).

Primavera, Jurgenne H. 2005. Mangroves, Fishponds, and the Quest for Sustainability. Science 310:57-59.

Puerto Princesa Underground River. http://www.puerto-undergroundriver.com/ (accessed 1/16/11).

Riley, Laura and William. 2005. Nature’s Strongholds. Princeton University Press. (Palawan, Puerto Princesa Subterranean River, El Nido, Caluit)

Spalding, Mark D. and 14 others. 2007. Marine Ecoregions of the World: A Bioregionalization of Coastal and Shelf Areas. Bioscience 57:573-583.

Walder, Rebecca, Jackum Brown and David Brown. Asia. In Emma Beare, ed. 2006. 501 Must-Visit Destinations. Bounty Books (Palawan)

World Heritage List. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list (accessed 11/6/10).

UNESCO-MAB Biosphere Reserve Directory. http://www.unesco.org/mabdb/br/brdir/directory/database.asp (accessed 11/6/10).

Tambora and Puting Peninsula

2010-12-30T22:51:00.002-05:00

Largest historical volcanic eruption, world’s largest lizard, and synchronous fruiting

I. Map boundaries: 0 to 10 degrees South; 112 to 120 degrees East

II. Country (Provinces): Indonesia (Bali, Central Kalimantan, Central Sulawesi, East Java, East Kalimantan, East Nusa Tenggara [Southeast Islands], South Kalimantan, South Sulawesi, West Kalimantan, West Southeast Islands, West Sulawesi).

III. Highlights

A. Sumbawa

At Mount Tambora, on the island of Sumbawa, Indonesia, about 30 cubic kilometers of the upper part of the volcano is missing. This is because the largest and deadliest volcanic eruption in recorded history took place here, on April 10, 1815. The explosion was heard up to 2600 km away, and darkness lasted for up to two days within 600 km of the volcano. Due to a monsoon blowing from the east, most of the ash fall was west of the volcano, covering Sumbawa, Lombok, and East Java. The original height of the mountain exceeded 4300 m; today its height is 2850 m, about two-thirds of its original height. The Flores Sea was littered with large rafts of pumice (up to several km in width) mixed with ash and uprooted trees. Debris flows reached the ocean, creating a tsunami which traveled at 70 m/s and reached eastern Java in less than two hours. The ash depth on Lombok, more than 200 km west of Tambora, reached 60 cm. Because the ash reached the stratosphere, it spread worldwide in about three months, and persistent haze persisted through 1816. To Europeans and Americans, 1816 was the year without a summer. The weather was cold, with snow and frost in the summer, and the mean worldwide temperature dropped 0.4 to 0.7 degree C in 1816. There may also have been a monsoon failure in India in 1816. Approximately 88,000 people are known to have perished on Sumbawa and Lombok (Stothers 1984).

B. Borneo (Southeast)

On Borneo, the dominant trees are members of the Dipterocarpaceae, a plant family that produces single-seeded fruits within a one- to two-month period at irregular intervals. Synchronous seed production serves to satiate seed predators and promote successful reproduction. The periods of fruit production correspond to El Nino-Southern Oscillation events. In 2010, the first large mass fruiting event since 1998 took place. The presence of high, non-volcanic mountains in a tropical rainforest climate zone provides a wide variety of unique habitats promoting plant and animal diversity on land and in sea. In addition, Borneo has remained at tropical latitudes for most of its geologic history, which has promoted environmental stability. Borneo is home to 15,000 species of flowering plants, 34 percent of which are found nowhere else. It has 155 endemic tree species, 44 endemic mammals, and 37 endemic birds. It is a hotbed of scientific discovery, with three new species being discovered per month. Notable plants are the dipterocarp trees which dominate the lowland rainforests, Rafflesia, the world’s largest flower; and pitcher plants, of which there are 30 endemic species on Borneo. Many rainforests in the Indonesian portion are being converted to palm oil plantations. Southeastern Borneo, especially in the provinces of Central and East Kalimantan, notable orangutan preservation efforts take place at Samboja Lestari and Putting Peninsula (Tanjung Putting National Park).

C. Sulawesi

Sulawesi, across the Makassar Straight from Borneo, is part of Wallacia, where Asian and Australian fauna mix. The island itself has lush rainforest and terraced rice fields. The lush mountains are where Alfred Russell Wallace collected butterflies and formulated a theory of evolution at the same time Darwin was doing the same in England. Wallace’s line is a deep oceanic trench marking the plate boundary between Australia and Asia. This is a major biogeographic boundary; Wallacia has high plant and animal endemism. The boundary between Asian and Australian fauna is also between Bali and Lombok.

D. Komodo

South of Sulawesi, across the Flores Sea, Komodo Island and surrounding islands are home to the largest known monitor lizard, the Komodo dragon. While there is a tendency to sensationalize the large lizards, which have been known to eat people, the large lizard is actually an opportunistic predator. A national park protects the monitors, surrounding islands, and marine habitats of the islands between Sumbawa and Flores.

E. Lombok

After Tambora lost its top, Mount Rinjani assumed the position as the second highest mountain in Indonesia, at 12,224 feet. It last erupted in 2004 and is the highest mountain in the Wallacea biogeographic area. A national park and areas on the slopes are good areas to hike to waterfalls, wildflowers, and Hindu temples. Offshore are diving areas in the Gili Islands.

F. Bali

The native long-tailed macque is a privileged visitor to Hindu temples, where they are treated with tolerance. The monkeys at Sangeh Temple are noted for stealing items from tourists who feed them, while monkeys at other sites such as Pura Uluwatu and Alas Kedaton are less aggressive (Small 1994). The West Bali National Park is a coastal savanna while eastern areas and high mountains are covered with rainforest.

G. Java (East)

A continuous line of volcanoes, many of which are active and occasionally deadly, dominates the eastern portion of the island. The world’s largest acidic lake is at Ijen. However, these also harbor lush tropical forests, wildlife, and archeological sites at Hindu temples. A savanna at Baluran National park in the extreme east of the island provides wildlife viewing of large mammals.

H. Sumba (West)

Sumba is a non-volcanic island of low limestone hills and grasslands. Stone megaliths are present over much of the island, and endemic birds are found in remaining dry forest. The southwestern coast is known as a surfer’s paradise.

I. Flores (West)

Only a small part of this volcanic island is shown. However, in this western area is a volcano with a crater lake and reserves that harbor endemic birds.

J. Indonesian Throughflow

Surface winds in the tropical Pacific flow from east to west, leading warm water to accumulate in the western Pacific. The deep ocean trench of the Makassar Straight adjacent to Sulawesi carries a major ocean current that flows between the Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean, known as the Indonesian Throughflow (ITF). A branch of the ITF also flows between Bali and Lombok, while another flows through the Flores Sea and exits into the Indian Ocean at the Timor Passage. The ITF influences the monsoons and El Nino-Southern Oscillation phenomena worldwide (Oppo and Rosenthal 2010).

IV. Ecoregions

A. Terrestrial Ecoregions

1. Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forests

a. Indo-Malayan Biome

IM 102. Borneo Lowland rain forests. The richest rainforest in the world, rivals New Guinea and the Amazon. There are at least 3,000 tree species and 2,000 orchids. The dominant plant family is the Dipterocarpaceae, of which 267 species are found in the ecoregion. Rare and unique animals are also present, including the world’s smallest squirrel and frog, orangutan and 12 other primates, small carnivores like the clouded leopard and sun bear, Sumatran rhinoceros, and Asian elephant. Found in Central Kalimantan, East Kalimantan, South Kalimantan, and West Kalimantan. Also found in islands of the Sunda Shelf to the south and east of Borneo.

IM 103, Borneo montane rain forests. An area in the mountains of Borneo above 1000 m in elevation, this is the most diverse montane flora on Earth. A large contiguous area of this ecoregion extends along the Malaysia-Indonesia border across central Borneo, and isolated mountain ranges such as the Hose and Dulit ranges in Sarawak and the Maliau and Tawau Hills in Sabah also are included. At elevations above 1,000 m, dipterocarp forests give way to oak, chestnut, myrtles, eucalyptus, and cloves. At elevations above 1,500 m, an rhododendron belt forms, which quickly gives way to an alpine meadow on the highest peaks. Epiphytes such as orchids are abundant, and pitcher plants are diverse. There are high-altitude swamp forests present. Found in Central Kalimantan and West Kalimantan.

IM 104, Borneo peat swamp forests. These mostly coastal dipterocarp forests are key habitat for the proboscis monkey. Large inland peat swamp forests are found in the Kapuas and Mahakam wetland areas. Found in Central Kalimantan, East Kalimantan, and West Kalimantan.

IM 112, Eastern Java-Bali montane rain forests. Found above 1,000 m in elevation, this ecoregion grades from evergreen rain forests in west to moist deciduous and more seasonal montane forest in the east. Evergreen forests are dominated by Artocarpus, Dysoxylum, and Lansiam, while deciduous forests are dominated by Homalium, Albizia, and Acacia. Montane zones have Lithocarpus, Quercus, laurels, and tree ferns. Above 1,800 m, mosses, Ericaceae, and Podocarpus are common. Above 3,000 m, Rhododendrum and Vaccinium are present. Found in Bali and East Java.

IM 113, Eastern Java-Bali rain forests. Predominantly moist deciduous forests with areas of semi-evergreen forests on the south coast and dry deciduous forests on the north coast. Lowland trees are Homalium, Albizia, and Acacia in deciduous forests; along with Artocarpus, Dysoxylium, and Lansiam in sem-evergreen forests. Linestone forests on Barung and Penida have a distinctive dipterocarp and Planchonia trees. Found in Bali and East Java, including Bawean Islands, Kangean Islands, Madura Island, and Penida Island.

IM 153, Southwest Borneo freshwater swamp forests. These wetland areas contain forests of Mallotus and tall legumes, along with long-tailed macaques, orangutans, and 360 birds. Found in East Kalimantan, South Kalimantan, and West Kalimantan.

IM 161, Sundaland heath forests. White sand soils support nutrient-poor scrub forests of dipterocarp trees on old beaches and sandstone plateaus and ridges. The nutrient-poor soils promote insectivorous plants like pitchers, sundews, and bladderwort. Found in Central Kalimantan, East Kalimantan, and West Kalimantan.

b. Australasia Biome

AA 123, Sulawesi lowland rain forests. These tropical evergreen forests are not dominated by one plant group like on Borneo. While there are seven species of dipterocarps, there are also palms and persimmons which can be abundant. The unique animal fauna (29 endemic mammals) includes a fruit-eating pig, dwarf buffalo, macaques, and cuscuses. The cuscuses are marsupials with Australian affinities. There are 70 endemic birds. Karst and serpentine areas have their own endemic species. Pitcher plants are common understory plants in this forest. Found in Central Sulawesi, South Sulawesi, and West Sulawesi. Also found on islands in the Flores Sea to the south of Sulawesi.

AA 124, Sulawesi montane rain forests. At elevations above 1,000 m, oaks, chestnuts, and conifers are common, along with epiphytic orchids. There are 33 endemic mammals and 44 endemic birds. Found in Central Sulawesi, South Sulawesi, and West Sulawesi.

2. Tropical and Subtropical Dry Deciduous Forests

AA201, Lesser Sundas deciduous forests. This predominantly dry forest region contains areas of semi-evergreen, moist deciduous, dry deciduous, and savanna vegetation. Moist deciduous trees include Tamarindus and Sterculia, while dry deciduous trees include Protium, Schleichera, Tabernaemontana and Bauhinia. Dry evergreen forests contain Albizia, Chionanthus, and Prunus. The southwest hills of Lombok and Sumbawa contain dipterocarp trees. Above 1,000 m, Euphorbiaceae dominate dry deciduous forests while other wetter montane forests contain Podocarpus, Engelhardia, and orchids. There are five endemic mammals and 29 endemic birds, and the world’s largest lizard, the Komodo monitor, on Komodo, Padar, Rinca, Motang, and Flores Islands. Found in East Southeast Islands and West Southeast Islands, including Lombok, Sumbawa, Moyo, Komodo, Rinca, and Flores Islands.

AA 203, Sumba deciduous forests. This is mostly a grassland and savanna ecosystem; however, moist lowland evergreen forests are found in the southern coastal areas. An endemic sundew is found in the sasvannas, and the island has seven endemic birds. Found on Sumba Island in the East Southeast Islands Province.

3. Mangrove

IM 1405, Sunda Shelf mangroves. The most biologically diverse mangrove forests in the world are habitat for proboscis monkeys. Found in Central Kalimantan, East Kalimantan, and South Kalimantan.

B. Freshwater Ecoregions of the World

1. Southern Asia Region

a. Tropical and Subtropical Coastal Rivers

737. Indian Ocean Slope of Sumatra and Java. Found off East Java coast.

740. Central and Eastern Java. Includes drainages to north coast of Java; also Bawean, Madura, and Kangean Islands.

741. Kapuas. Found in West Kalimantan.

745. Eastern Borneo. Found in East Kalimantan from Equator south to Adang Bay.

746. Southeastern Borneo. Found in Central Kalimantan, East Kalimantan and South Kalimantan south of Adang Bay.

748. Lesser Sunda Islands. Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, and Sumba.

749. Sulawesi. Found in Central Sulawesi, South Sulawesi, and West Sulawesi.

b. Montane Freshwater

743. Borneo Highlands. Found in Central Kalimantan and West Kalimantan (see terrestrial ecoregion 103 on attached map).

C. Marine Ecoregions of the World

1. Central Indo-Pacific Realm, Sunda Shelf Province

117. Sunda Shelf/Java Sea. Found on Sunda Shelf between Borneo and Java.

2. Central Indo-Pacific Realm, Java Transitional Province

119. Southern Java. Found from Alas Purwo westward including Barung and Sempu Islands.

3. Central Indo-Pacific Realm, Western Coral Triangle Province

128. Sulawesi Sea/Makassar. Found along the coast of Sulawesi and East Kalimantan south to Laut Island; also includes areas adjacent to islands in Makassar Straight and Flores Sea.

132. Lesser Sunda. Found along coast of Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, and Sumba.

V. World Heritage Site

Komodo National Park, East Nusa Tenggara (Southeast Islands), including Komodo, Rinca, and adjacent islands. Noted species are the famous monitor lizard, the orange-footed scrubfowl, an endemic rat, yellow-crested cockatoo, Flores crow, Flores green pigeon, and Timor deer. In the seas are coral reefs with 1,000 species of fish, 260 species of coral, and 70 species of sponges. Also a Biosphere Reserve and Important Bird Area. Terrestrial ecoregion AA201 and marine ecoregion 132.

VI. Biosphere Reserves

Komodo National Park (see World Heritage Sites above)

Lore Lindu National Park, Central Sulawesi. Approximately 400 granite monoliths of humans, pots, and stone plates, carved from 3000 BC to 1300 CE. Lowland rain forests have Mussaendopsis, Dysoxylum, Ficus, and Myristica. Montane forests have Leptospermum, Rapanea, and Myrsine. An Important Bird Area for maleo, snoring rail, blue-faced rail, yellow-crested cockatoo, Sulawesi golden owl, and Sulawesi eared nightjar. Ecoregions AA123 and AA 124.

Puting Peninsula National Park (Tanjung Puting), Central Kalimantan. This complex mosaic of swampy terrain, including freshwater swamp, lowland rainforest with dipterocarps, and peat swamp forest is known for its long-term orangutan research. Tours of the park are by houseboats. Wildlife includes the proboscis monkey, orangutan, clouded leopard, sun bear, and walking mudskippers. The multitude of habitats make this an Important Bird Area for Oriental darter, black-crowned night heron, little egret, great egret, and purple heron. At Camp Leakey, an orangutan research site for 40 years managed by Orangutan Foundation International, orangutans that have been orphaned or captured in surrounding palm oil plantations are rehabilitated and released. IM Ecoregions 102, 104, 153, 161, and 1405.

VII. Other Sites

Agung (Paramount), Bali. A complex of 23 Hindu temples is found on the south side of this 10,000-foot mountain. Also terraced rice patties, waterfalls, and lava flows can be seen. Ecoregion IM 112.

Alas Purwo National Park, East Java. An Important Bird Area. Mangrove, savanna, and lowland forest habitat. A limestone peninsula has caves and waterfalls. Wildlife includes banteng, green peacocks, lesser adjutant, Javan hawk-eagle, deer, wild dogs, and jungle fowl. Beaches are among the best in the world for surfers. Ecoregion IM113.

Anakalang, Sumba, East Southeast Islands. Noted for stone megaliths. Ecoregion AA203.

Arjuna-Lalijiwo Nature Reserve, East Java. This volcano reserve contains alpine meadows and two peaks; it is the last untouched mountain forest of eastern Java. On the mountain slopes are a tea estate, Purwodadi Botanical Garden, and agrotourism venture. The last volcanic eruption was 1952. The site includes the Tahura Radan Soerjo Important Bird Area for Javan hawk-eagle. Ecoregion IM 113.

Baka-Raya (Bukit Baka-Bukit Raya) Mountains National Park, Central Kalimantan and West Kalimantan. This park protects montane forests, waterfalls, and Rafflesia plants. It is an Important Bird Area for wattled pheasant and straw-headed bulbul. Ecoregions IM 102 and IM 103.

Baluran National Park, East Java. An Important Bird Area. Savanna habitats with acacia trees harbor banteng, deer, monkey, pigs, leopards, green peafowl, Java hawk-eagle, black-winged starling, jungle fowl, hornbills, and bee-eaters. Baluran volcano has a horseshoe-shaped crater. Ecoregion IM 113.

Bantimurung, South Sulawesi. This area of scenic waterfalls is famous for butterflies. Nearby are the Gua Leang Leang caves with ancient paints made 8,000 to 30,000 years ago. Ecoregions AA 123 and AA 124.

Barung Island Nature Reserve, East Java. A limestone island surrounded by high cliffs. Ecoregion IM 113.

Batar Mountain, Bali. This volcano erupted in 2000. Ecoregion IM 112.

Batukaru Native Reserve, Bali. An Important Bird Area. Endemic birds, mammals and trees are found on this mountain, which is accessible from a Hindu temple on the south side. Ecoregion IM 112.

Bawean Game Reserve, East Java. This island in the Java Sea between Borneo and Java is known for endemic Bawean deer, a crater lake, hot springs, and waterfalls. Coral reefs surround the island. Terrestrial Ecoregion IM 113 and marine ecoregion 117.

Beratus Mountains, East Kalimantan. This Important Bird Area for crestless fireback is an orangutan release area. Ecoregion IM102.

Bratan Lake, Bali. This hiking area contains coffee plantations, archaeological sites, and the Bali Botanical Garden. Bratan volcano has three caldera lakes and has been developed for geothermal electricity. Ecoregion IM 112.

Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park, East Java. A new caldera formed inside a larger and more ancient caldera. The Tengger Sand Sea has five volcanoes, including Bromo and Tengger. The last eruption was 2004. Semeru is the highest peak and most active and dangerous volcano in Java. It has been in continuous eruption since 1967. This is an Important Bird Area for Javan hawk-eagle. Ecoregion IM113.

Coral Peninsula, Central Sulawesi. Noted as a good snorkeling area. Ecoregion AA123 and marine ecoregion 128.

Dodo Jarangpusang, Sumbawa, West Southeast Islands. This Important Bird Area for the Flores green pigeon is a lowland semi-evergreen forest. Ecoregion IM 201.

Gili Air-Meno-Terawangan Marine Park, off Lombok, West Southeast Islands. Three islands known for diving to coral reefs. Terrestrial ecoregion AA201 and marine ecoregion 132.

Hyang-Argapuro, East Java. This strongly eroded 10,000-foot volcano is dissected by valleys up to 1,000 feet deep. Hyang Plateau is an Important Bird Area for green peafowl and Javan hawk-eagle. Ecoregion IM112.

Ijen-Merapi-Maelang Nature Reserve, East Java. The volcanic cones of Ijen, Merapi and Raung dominate the area. Ijen has a turquoise-colored sulfur lake, the world’s largest acidic lake. Raung last erupted in 2008. This is an Important Bird Area for white-faced partridge, green peafowl, Javan hawk-eagle and Javan scops-owl. Ecoregion IM112.

Kaget Island Nature Reserve, South Kalimantan. Two islands are a preserve for proboscis monkey. Ecoregion IM 1405.

Kahayan Forest, Central Kalimantan. This swamp forest is an Important Bird Area for large green pigeon, Storm’s stork, and lesser adjutant. Ecoregion IM153.

Kangean Islands, East Java. An archipelago with 30 islands; limestone habitats have caves harboring 15 bat species. The area supports natural gas drilling. Ecoregion IM 113.

Kapoposang Nature Recreation Park, off South Sulawesi. An archipelago in the Makassar Straight. Terrestrial Ecoregion AA123 and marine ecoregion 128.

Kawi-Kelud, East Java. This four-mountain complex is an Important Bird Area for Javan hawk-eagle. Kelud volcano last erupted in 2008, and has been the site of some of Indonesia’s most deadly eruptions. The ejection of water from a crater lake has caused pyroclastic flows and lahars. Ecoregion IM 112.

Kodi, Sumba, East Southeast Islands. A surfing area noted for megalithic tombs on land. Terrestrial ecoregion AA203 and marine ecoregion 132.

Kuta Gerupa Bay, Lombok, West Southeast Islands. Seagrass beds harbor dugong. Marine ecoregion 132.

Lamongan, East Java. This area has 27 maars with crater lakes, 60 cinder cones, and spatter cones. The last eruption was 1898. Ecoregion IM 112.

Latimojong Mountains, South Sulawesi. This Important Bird Area is noted for Lompobatang flycatcher. Ecoregion AA124.

Lemba Palu (Hammer Valley), Central Sulawesi. An Important Bird Area for grey imperial-pigeon and yellow-crested cockatoo. Ecoregion IM 123.

Lembongan Island, Bali. A beach resort for surfers, snorkelers, and hikers. Ecoregion IM 112.

Limon-Wilis Mountains, East Java. These mountains are an Important Bird Area for Javan hawk-eagle. Ecoregion IM 112.

Lompobattang Mountain, South Sulawesi. This is an Important Bird Area for the Lompobattang flycatcher, a critically endangered, limited range species. Ecoregion AA124.

Lurus, East Java. A volcano on the northern coast of Java. Ecoregion IM 113.

Mahakam Delta, East Kalimantan. These mangrove swamps and mudflats are an Important Bird Area for lesser adjutant and Chinese egret. Ecoregion IM1405.

Malang Plain, East Java. This is a group of nine ash cones, maars, and volcanic plugs. Ecoregion IM112.

Mamasa Valley, West Sulawesi. A hiking area with stunning views, hot springs, waterfalls, and caves. Ecoregion AA124.

Mancong, East Kalimantan. This is a riverside virgin forest area. Ecoregion IM 104 and IM 161.

Mawas, Central Kalimantan. This is a 500,000-acre area to be managed by Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation for conservation, through agreement with the Central Kalimantan government. This is a follow-up to the Central Kalimantan Peatlands Project, funded by the Dutch government from 2006 to 2008 to conserve peat forests by canal blocking and fire prevention. Ecoregions IM 104 and IM 153.

Manupeu Tanah Daru National Park, Sumba, East Southeast Islands. The last remaining lowland semi-deciduous forest in Sumba steeply rises from sea level to 600 m elevation. This park protects nine species of endemic birds, seven endemic butterflies, and four endemic reptiles in the last lowland monsoon forest in Sumba. The park is an Important Bird Area for Sumba buttonquail, red-naped fruit dove, and Sumba hornbill. Ecoregion AA203.

Mbeliling, Nggorang Bowisie, and Wae Wuul Nature Recreation Park, Flores, East Southeast Islands. In habitats ranging from lowland forest to grassland on Flores, these three Important Bird Areas harbor Wallace’s hanging parrot, Flores monarch, and Flores crow. Terrestrial ecoregion AA201 and marine ecoregion 132.

Melak, East Kalimantan. This is an orchid reserve area along the Mahakam River. Ecoregion IM 102.

Meratus Mountains, South Kalimantan. An Important Bird Area for mountain barbet, large hawk-cuckoo, Temminck’s babbler, white-crowned forktail, and Everett’s white-eye. Ecoregion IM 102.

Meru Betiri National Park, East Java. Coastal rainforest with Rafflesia plants, leopards, banteng, pangolins, and nesting sea turtles. Beaches on the south coast have gray sand. Terrestrial wildlife inclues leopard, pig, giant black squirrel, and civet. An Important Bird Area for white-faced partridge, green peafowl, Javan hawk-eagle, and Java sparrow. Terrestrial ecoregion IM113 and marine ecoregion 119.

Middle Mahakam Wetlands (Lahan Basah Mahakam Tengah), East Kalimantan, Indonesia. An Important Bird Area containing swamp forest with three large lakes harboring terns, herons, and storks. IM Ecoregions 102, 104, 153, and 161.

Moyo Island Marine Recreation Park, West Southeast Islands. A dry savanna with thorn trees harbors wild pigs, deer and megapode birds. This is an important Bird Area for yellow-crested cockatoo and lesser adjutant. A luxury nature camp is on the island. Terrestrial ecoregion AA201 and marine ecoregion 132.

Muara Pahu, East Kalimantan. The Conservation Foundation for Rare Aquatic Species (Yasan Konservasi RASI) is developing a 70-km long conservation area centered on Muara Pahu. The river in this stretch is prime habitat for freshwater dolphins. A cruise along the Mahakam River also reveals monkeys, macaque, gibbons, leopards and hornbills. Ecoregion IM 153.

Negara Valley, Central Kalimantan. A swampy Important Bird Area with lakes and floodplain habitats, known for Javan pond heron, rails, moorhen, terns, ibis, and lesser adjutant. Ecoregions IM 104 and IM 153.

Nihiwatu, Sumba, East Southeast Islands. A surfing area where the film Green Iguana was filmed. Terrestrial ecoregion AA203 and marine ecoregion 132.

Olet Sangenges Mountain, Sumbawa, West Southeast Islands. The highest mountain in Sumbawa is also an Important Bird Area. Ecoregion AA 201.

Panataran, East Java. Known for Hindu temples dating from 1200 CE. Ecoregions IM 112 and IM 113.

Pararawen Reserve, Central Kalimantan. A project of the Kalaweit Foundation, this is a gibbon rehabilitation center. Ecoregion IM 102.

Pasir Putih, Besar Mountain, and Ringgit Mountain, East Java. This Important Bird Area is a monsoon forest with green peafowl. Ecoregion IM 112 and IM 113.

Pemuteran, Bali. This is noted for a diving resort and a sea turtle hatchery and protection program. Marine ecoregion 132.

Penanggungan, East Java. The slopes of this volcano are notable for the presence of 81 Hindu temples, monuments, and sacred bathing places. The last eruption was 200 CE. Ecoregion IM 112 and IM 113.

Penida Island, Bali. This mostly arid island is known for a limestone plateau with cliffs, caves, and waterfalls. It is also an Important Bird Area for yellow-crested cockatoo. Ecoregion IM 113.

Pleihari Martapura Wildlife Reserve, South Kalimantan. The southern and western slopes of the Meratus Mountains contain grasslands, montane forest, and lowland dipterocarp forest among gorges and waterfalls. The area is rich in orchids and harbors six species of primates. Ecoregion IM 102.

Pleihari Tanah Laut Wildlife Reserve, South Kalimantan. A coastal preserve for mangroves and swamp forest. Ecoregions IM 153 and IM 1405.

Poronumbu, Sumba, East Southeast Islands. This forested area in Sumba has high bird diversity and is an IBA for red-naped fruit dove, yellow-crested cockatoo, and Sumba hornbill. Ecoregion AA203.

Rinjani National Park, West Southeast Islands. The second tallest active volcano in Indonesia, at 12,224 feet, and the highest mountain in Wallacea, contains a caldera lake. Located on Lombok, savanna is found at lower elevations and a rainforest grows near the top. An endemic civet species is also found here. The mountain is an Important Bird Area for yellow-crested cockatoo, chestnut-backed thrush, and Flores green pigeon. Ecoregion AA201.

Samarinda-Balikpapan Forest, East Kalimantan. This area with includes the Wanariset orangutan research center, is an Important Bird Area for crestless fireback, Bornean bristlehead, striped wren-babbler, and flycatchers. Ecoregion IM161.

Samboja Lestari, East Kalimantan. The Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation has funded a project to restore rainforest on a 2,000-ha tract near Balikpapan. The restoration involves 1600 species of trees, 137 bird species, orangutans, and sun bears. Human-use zones ringing the site involve acacia for timber and sugar palms for marketable sap. Cash crops grown among the trees include ginger, papayas, cocoa, and chiles. Ecoregion IM 161.

Sangeang Island, West Southeast Islands. This volcano on an island off of Sumbawa last erupted in 1999. Ecoregion AA201.

Sebangau National Park, Central Kalimantan. This area contains peat forests and a large population of orangutans. Ecoregions IM 104 and IM 153.

Selah Legium Protection Forest, Sumbawa, West Southeast Islands. Species found in this Important Bird Area are the russet-backed jungle flycatcher, Flores green pigeon, yellow-crested cockatoo and 19 other restricted range birds. Ecoregion AA201.

Sempu Island and Lenggasma Bay Nature Reserve, East Java. This Important Bird Area has green peafowl and Javan hawk-eagle. The off-shore island has freshwater lakes. Terrestrial ecoregion IM 113 and marine ecoregion 119.

Sesanot Forest Park, Lombok, West Southeast Islands. High elevation cool forests on the slopes of Mount Rinjani. Ecoregion AA201.

Solo Delta, East Java. This mangrove area and Important Bird Area is noted for the milky stork, lesser adjutant, Asian dowitcher and Sunda coucal. Ecoregion IM 113.

Sotonda Island Protected Area, West Southeast Islands. This top of an emerging volcano is vegetated with a dry monsoon forest. A crater lake is in the volcanic crater. Terrestrial ecoregion AA201.

Sumanep, Madura Island, East Java. This mangrove-dominated Important Bird Area hosts a big population of the milky stork, as well as dugongs in the sea. Terrestrial ecoregion IM 113 and marine ecoregion 117.

Surabaya East Coast, East Java. This coastal Important Bird Area is a feeding area for migratory birds such as black-winged stilt, Mongolian plover, Asian dowitcher, and great egret. Terrestrial ecoregion IM 113 and marine ecoregion 117.

Takapala, South Sulawesi. A scenic waterfall set amid rice fields. Ecoregion AA123.

Taliwang Recreation Park, Sumbawa, West Southeast Islands. This wetland is an Important Bird Area for milky stork and other waterbirds. Terrestrial ecoregion AA201 and marine ecoregion 132.

Tambora Wiildlife Reserve and Hunting Park, West Southeast Islands. Besides the site of history’s largest explosive eruption (see island highlights), forests are dominated by Duabanga moluccana and the volcano is an Important Bird Area for yellow-crested cockatoo. The last eruption was 1967. Terrestrial ecoregion AA201.

Tana Toraja, South Sulawesi. This mountainous hiking area is visited for unique cultural experiences related to elaborate funeral ceremonies. Cascading rice fields, precipitous cliffs, and ancient hanging graves are viewed. Ecoregion AA124.

Tempe Lake, South Sulawesi. A shallow wetland and lake noted for bird life; it is an Important Bird Area for yellow-crested cockatoo. Ecoregion AA123.

Tirta Gangga, Bali. This is a mountainous hiking area known for scenic views. Ecoregion IM 112.

Ubud, Bali. Noted for fine arts, dance, and music, this scenic hiking area noted for ancient monuments to 11^th century Balinese royalty and other archaeological sites. Ecoregion IM112.

Wai Sano, Flores, East Southeast Islands. This volcano on west Flores contains a large caldera lake. On the slopes of the volcano is the Sano Nggoang Important Bird Area, which is noted for Flores monarch and Flores crow. Ecoregion AA201.

West Bali National Park, Bali. An Important Bird Area. This park of coastal savanna with deciduous trees protects the Bali starling and Balinese cattle, a wild species, as well as several species of primates. It is a migration route for the Oriental honey-buzzard, Japanese sparrowhawk, and Chinese goshawk. Ecoregion IM 113.

Yawila, Sumba, East Southeast Islands. The highest peak and wettest area on Sumba supports red-naped fruit dove, yellow-crested cockatoo, and Sumba hornbill. Ecoregion AA 203.

VIII. References

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Kapuas, Kinabalu, Tubbataha, and Victoria

2010-11-14T22:57:00.002-05:00

A rainforest wetland, a rainforest mountain, tropical reefs, and big pitchers

A lost world: world center of plant diversity and world’s largest limestone cave system

I. Map boundaries: 0 to 10 degrees North; 112 to 120 degrees East

II. Countries (States, Regions, or Districts): Brunei, Abode of Peace; Indonesia (Central Kalimantan, Central Sulawesi, East Kalimantan, and West Kalimantan), Malaysia (Labuan, Sabah, and Sarawak), Philippines (Palawan, Tawi-Tawi), and Spratley Islands. The Spratley Islands are claimed by Brunei, China, Malaysia, Philippines, Taiwan, and Vietnam.

III. Overview

On the third largest island in the world, the presence of high, non-volcanic mountains in a tropical rainforest climate zone provides a wide variety of unique habitats promoting plant and animal diversity on land and in sea. Borneo is home to 15,000 species of flowering plants, 34 percent of which are found nowhere else. It is a hotbed of scientific discovery, with three new species being discovered per month. Notable plants are the dipterocarp trees which dominate the lowland rainforests, Rafflesia, the world’s largest flower; and pitcher plants, of which there are 30 endemic species on Borneo. Limestone rocks along the coastlines fronting the South China Sea have led to the development of karst features, including caves, which are especially notable in Sarawak and Palawan. Outside of the high mountains at Kinabalu and along the Malaysia-Indonesia border in Borneo, extensive areas of lowland rainforest are notable in throughout Borneo. The highest mountains are the high-elevation area in northern Borneo dominated by Mount Kinabalu, Trus Madi, and the Crocker Range. High mountains are found in other areas, including the Tawau Hills and Maliau Basin of Sabah, the extensive plateaus along the border between Indonesia and Malaysia, and in the isolated Hose and Dulit ranges. Spectacular caves are found at Mulu and Niah national parks in Sarawak and at Tabon on Palawan. The Indonesia portion includes two large freshwater wetlands associated with the Kapuas River and Mahakam River. Sulawesi, across the Makassar Straight from Borneo, is part of Wallacia, where Asian and Australian fauna mix.

North of Borneo is Palawan, which has unique rainforest flora and fauna. Palawan is home to the world’s largest pitcher plant, Nepenthes attenboroughii, discovered in 2009 on Mount Victoria. N. attenboroughii has pale yellow to light green pitchers that measure up to 30 by 16 cm. The species is found only in serpentine soils at the mountain peak. To the south on the same island, Mount Mantalingahan has its own endemic species of pitcher plant, one of 16 endemic species of pitchers on Palawan. Endemic animals include a bearcat, mousedeer, parrots, hornbills, and pheasants. Palawan is also known for pristine beaches, reef diving in Honda Bay, and waterfall touring. Offshore in the Sulu Sea are reefs of the diverse Coral Triangle, including Tubbataha Reef, a world heritage site. The entire Philippine province is managed as an international biosphere reserve.

Also to the north of Borneo, the South China Sea is dotted with reefs of the Spratley archipelago, while to the east islands in the Sulu Archipelago extend eastward. This is the Coral Triangle, a center of marine biodiversity.

IV. Ecoregions

Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forests

Indo-Malayan Biome

IM 102. Borneo Lowland rain forests. The richest rainforest in the world, rivals New Guinea and the Amazon. There are at least 3,000 tree species and 2,000 orchids. The dominant plant family is the Dipterocarpaceae, of which 267 species are found in the ecoregion. Rare and unique animals are also present, including the world’s smallest squirrel and frog, orangutan and 12 other primates, small carnivores like the clouded leopard and sun bear, Sumatran rhinoceros, and Asian elephant. Found in Brunei, Central Kalimantan, East Kalimantan, Tawi-Tawi (Mapun), Sabah, Sarawak, and West Kalimantan.

IM 103. Borneo montane rain forests. An area in the mountains of Borneo above 1000 m in elevation, this is the most diverse montane flora on Earth. A large contiguous area of this ecoregion extends along the Malaysia-Indonesia border across central Borneo, and isolated mountain ranges such as the Hose and Dulit ranges in Sarawak and the Maliau and Tawau Hills in Sabah also are included. At elevations above 1,000 m, dipterocarp forests give way to oak, chestnut, myrtles, eucalyptus, and cloves. At elevations above 1,500 m, an rhododendron belt forms, which quickly gives way to an alpine meadow on the highest peaks. Epiphytes such as orchids are abundant, and pitcher plants are diverse. There are high-altitude swamp forests present. Found in Central Kalimantan, East Kalimantan, Sabah, Sarawak, and West Kalimantan.

IM 104, Borneo peat swamp forests. These mostly coastal dipterocarp forests are key habitat for the proboscis monkey. Large inland peat swamp forests are found in the Kapuas and Mahakam wetland areas. Found in Brunei, East Kalimantan, Sarawak, and West Kalimantan.

IM 143, Palawan rain forests. These lowland evergreen dipterocarp rain forests have a short one- to three-month dry season. Some forest areas are deciduous during this period. The area is noted for endemic mammals including a tree squirrel and a rat. Found in Palawan, Bugsuk, and Balabac.

IM 148, South China Sea Islands. These 600 coral reef islands barely surface and are mostly devoid of vegetation but could support forest vegetation. Found in the Spratley Islands.

IM 153, Southwest Borneo freshwater swamp forests. The Kapuas and Mahakam wetland areas contain forests of Mallotus and tall legumes, along with long-tailed macaques, orangutans, and 360 birds. Found in East Kalimantan and West Kalimantan.

IM 156, Sulu Archipelago rain forests. These lowland moist rain forests have mostly been cleared. They have a distinct bird fauna compared to nearby areas of Borneo. Found on Tawi-tawi, Sibutu, and adjacent islands.

IM 161, Sundaland heath forests. White sand soils support nutrient-poor scrub forests of dipterocarp trees on old beaches and sandstone plateaus and ridges. The nutrient-poor soils promote insectivorous plants like pitchers, sundews, and bladderwort. Found in East Kalimantan, Sarawak, and West Kalimantan in coastal areas and around the Kapuas and Mahakam wetlands.

Australasia Biome

AA 123, Sulawesi lowland rain forests. Tropical evergreen forests with only seven dipterocarp species. The unique animal fauna includes a fruit-eating pig, dwarf buffalo, macaques, cuscuses, and highly endemic birds. Found in Central Sulawesi.

Montane Grasslands and Shrublands

IM 1001, Kinabalu Montane Alpine Meadows. This high-elevation rainforest in northeast Borneo contains a flora of 4,500 species, the richest in the world, along with 114 mammals and 180 birds. There are 78 species of figs and 750 orchid species, and unique gymnosperms. Found in Sabah.

Mangrove

IM 1405, Sunda Shelf Mangroves. Habitat for proboscis monkeys. Found in Brunei, East Kalimantan, Labuan, Sabah, and Sarawak.

V. Freshwater Ecoregions

Southern Asia Region

Tropical and Subtropical Coastal Rivers

741. Kapuas. Found in West Kalimantan.

742. Northwestern Borneo. Found in Brunei and Sarawak.

744. Northeastern Borneo. Found in East Kalimantan and Sabah, from the Padas River in Sabah to the Sesayap River in East Kalimantan.

745. Eastern Borneo. Found in East Kalimantan from the Kayan River south.

749. Sulawesi. Found in Central Sulawesi.

752. Mindanao. Found in Tawi-Tawi.

756. Palawan-Busuanga-Mindoro. Found in Balabac and Palawan.

Montane Freshwater

743. Borneo Highlands. Found in Central Kalimantan, East Kalimantan, Sabah, Sarawak, and West Kalimantan.

VI. Marine Ecoregions

Central Indo-Pacific Realm, South China Sea Province

114. South China Sea Oceanic Islands. Found in Spratley Islands.

Central Indo-Pacific Realm, Sunda Shelf Province

117. Sunda Shelf/Java Sea. Found along coast of Sarawak.

Central Indo-Pacific Realm, Western Coral Triangle Province

126. Palawan/North Borneo. Found along the coast of Brunei, Palawan, Sabah, and East Kalimantan north of Kutai National Park.

128. Sulawesi Sea/Makassar. Found along the coast of Sulawesi and East Kalimantan south of Kutai National Park.

VII. World Heritage Sites

Kinabalu National Park, Sabah, Malaysia. The highest mountain between the Himalayas and New Guinea, 4,095 m, Kinabalu provides the center of plant diversity in southeast Asia and harbors a diverse biota with high endemism. Half of all families of flowering plants are represented; notable plants are 1,000 orchid species, giant Rafflesia, the world’s largest moss to 1 m tall, rhododendrons, and pitcher plants. Of the 326 bird species found here, 23 are endemic. The world’s longest stick insect, Chan’s megastick, was discovered in forests here. An Important Bird Area. Ecoregion 1001.

Mulu Mountain National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia. Tropical karst area (25 miles wide) of deeply incised canyons, wild rivers, limestone pinnacles, and wild rivers. There are 17 vegetation zones and 3,500 species of plants, including 109 palm species. Within the 295 miles of cave passages is the largest-known cave chamber and longest known cave passage. There are peat swamp, dipterocarp, and montane forest areas. Mammals are sun bear, bats, tarsiers, macaques, and gibbons. The area along the Baram River is known as the Headhunters Trail. An Important Bird Area wih 262 species including hornbills and swiftlets. Ecoregions 102, 103, and 104.

Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park, Palawan Province, Philippines. The pristine coral reef contains the highest population density known of white tip reef sharks and seven breeding species of seabirds, boobies, and terns. An Important Bird Area. Found off of Palawan. Terrestrial ecoregion 143 and marine ecoregion 126.

VIII. Ramsar Sites

Danau Santarum National Park, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. An inland floodplain wetland with numerous lakes and connecting waterways, this site represents the last area of primary freshwater swamp forest in Kalimantan. Also present is peat swamp forest. Red arowana fish can be seen leaping out of the lakes. The protected area supports orangutan, false ghavial, Malayan sun bear, proboscis monkey, and estuarine crocodiles. An Important Bird Area known for breeding waterbird colonies. Ecoregions 102, 104, and 153.

Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park, Palawan. See description under World Heritage Sites.

IX. Biosphere Reserve

Palawan. The entire Philippine province of Palawan, including Tubbataha Reef World Heritage Site (above), is included in the biosphere reserve. Mount Victoria, Mount Mantalingahan, Honda Bay, Iwahig River, Tabon Caves, Rasa Island, Ursula Island, Bugsuk Island, and Balabac Island are shown on the map. Ecoregion 143.

X. Other points of interest

Balabac Island, Palawan Province, Philippines. An Important Bird Area noted for grey imperial pigeon, Philippine cockatoo, blue-headed racquet-tail, and Palawan hornbill. Ecoregion 143.

Baleh Headwaters, Sarawak, Malaysia. An Important Bird Area; ecoregion 103.

Bario and Kelabit Highlands. A trekking area, where hikers walk from longhouse to longhouse on mountain trails. Ecoregion 103.

Batang Ai National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia. A rainforest preserve managed by local people with orangutan, hornbills and gibbons. Ecoregions 102 and 161.

Batu Punggul, Sabah, Malaysia. A limestone pinnacle in the rainforest; caves. Ecoregion 102.

Belait Swamp Forest, Brunei. Forests of Shorea albida dominate the peat swamp forests in this area. The fanged pitcher plant has two appendages on the underside of the pitcher lid. An Important Bird Area. Ecoregion 104.

Betung Kerihun National Park, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Lowland dipterocarp and montane oak-chestnut forest, rich in palms. The Muller Range on the border of West Kalimantan and Sarawak contains a diversity of waterfalls, limestone hills, and caves. Mammals are rhinos, leopards, orangutans, and bearcats. An Important Bird Area known for wattled pheasant, and Wallace’s hawk-eagle. Ecoregions 102 and 103.

Brunei Bay, Brunei, Sabah, and Sarawak. An Important Bird Area with mangroves which hosts migratory waterbirds, Storm’s stork, lesser adjutant, and Chinese egret. Ecoregion 1405 and marine ecoregion 126.

Buda National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia. A limestone peak 963 m high with extensive caves. An important bird area. Ecoregion 102.

Bukit Tiban National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia. A reforested rainforest at the headwaters of Nyalau and Timong rivers. Ecoregion 102.

Crocker Range National Park, Sabah, Malaysia. The largest protected area in Sabah and an Important Bird Area for endemic birds. Within the park is the Rafflesia Centre, which has trails to plants which have the world’s largest flowers. Ecoregions 102 and 1001.

Danum-Linau, Sarawak, Malaysia. An Important Bird Area for Bornean peacock-pheasant. Ecoregion 103.

Danum Valley Conservation Area, Sabah, Malaysia. This protected area operated by the Sabah Foundation contains the most important Old World rainforest scientific research center, the Danum Valley Field Centre. Mammals are rhinos, elephants, orangutans, mouse deer, pigs, leopards, and leopard cats. There are 275 known bird species, including nine endemics. A new bird species, the Spectacled Flowerpecker, was recently discovered in this forest. An Important Bird Area. Ecoregion 102 and 103.

Dulit Range, Sarawak, Malaysia. An Important Bird Area. Ecoregion 103.

Honda Bay, Palawan, Philippines. Known for reef diving and pristine beaches. Marine ecoregion 126.

Hose-Laga Mountains, Sarawak, Malaysia. An Important Bird Area; ecoregion 103.

Iwahig River, Palawan, Philippines. Known for firefly watching; managed by Iwahig Community Eco-Tourism Association. Ecoregion 143.

Kayan Mentarang National Park, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Kayan is an extensive mountain plateau on the border between East Kalimantan and Sarawak. Known for sun bears, pangolins, and wild pig migrations. An Important Bird Area with Borneo endemic birds. Ecoregion 103.

Klias Peninsula, Sabah, Malaysia. An Important Bird Area with mangrove forest, freshwater swamp forest and peat swamp forest which hosts large populations of waterbirds. Also noted for firefly watching. The Klias River provides whitewater rafting. Ecoregions 102, 104, and 1405.

Kulamba Wildlife Reserve, Sabah, Malaysia. A coastal area with isolated hills, an Important Bird Area for wrinkled hornbill. Ecoregions 102 and 1405.

Kutai National Park, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Known for rhinos, proboscis monkey, 300 birds, mangroves, rainforests, and orangutan. An Important Bird Area known for great-billed heron and lesser adjutant. Ecoregions 102, 161, and 1405.

Labuan Marine Park, Labuan, Malaysia. Three islets near Labuan are protected coral reefs for snorkeling. Ecoregion 1405.

Labuk Bay, Sabah, Malaysia. A private proboscis monkey sanctuary. Ecoregion 1405.

Ladan Hills, Brunei. An Important Bird Area. Ecoregions 102 and 104.

Lambir Hills National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia. A sandstone escarpment hosts dipterocarp forests and waterfalls. An Important Bird Area. Ecoregions 102 and 104.

Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary, Sarawak, Malaysia. Virgin rainforest preserve, noted for pitcher plants. An Important Bird Area. Ecoregion 102.

Lankayan Island, Sabah, Malaysia. An offshore diving resort and part of the Sugud Islands Marine Conservation Area. Ecoregion 102.

Layang-Layang (Swallow Reef), Spratley Islands. A Navy base and diving resort created by the Malaysian armed forces; divers see hammerhead sharks, rays, and barracuda; an Important Bird Area for Asian great crested terns. Ecoregion 148.

Loagan Banut National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia. This peat swamp forest preserve with a large natural lake is known for a great diversity of birds and primates. An Important Bird Area. Ecoregion 104.

Long Bangum, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. An Important Bird Area with undisturbed lowland forest. Ecoregion 102.

Madai Caves, Sabah, Malaysia. Swiftlet nests are harvested for birds nest soup. Also archaeological sites. Ecoregion 102.

Middle Mahakam Wetlands (Lahan Basah Mahakam Tengah), East Kalimantan, Indonesia. An Important Bird Area containing swamp forest with three large lakes. Ecoregions 104 and 161.

Maliau Basin Conservation Area, Sabah, Malaysia. A saucer-shaped basin surrounded by cliffs to 1,900 m in height and managed by the Sabah Foundation is known as Sabah’s Lost World. There are 280 species of birds, with many endemics. An Important Bird Area. Ecoregion 103.

Mantanani Islands, Sabah, Malaysia. Three offshore islands with limestone bluffs and rocky shores, an Important Bird Area for pelagic species like frigatebirds. Ecoregion 102 and marine ecoregion 126.

Manuk Island, Tawi-Tawi Province, Philippines. An Important Bird Area with Philippine cockatoo and blue-winged racquet tail. Ecoregion 156.

Mount Mantalingahan Protected Landscape, Palawan, Philippines. The highest mountain in Palawan, stronghold of Palawan striped-babbler. Home of diverse rainforest flora, including Nepenthes mantalingajensis, an endemic species of pitcher plant. An Important Bird Area. Ecoregion 143.

Niah National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia. This archaeological park is the site of 40,000-year old human remains. Painted Cave contains wall paintings which depict the boat journey of the dead to the afterlife. Birds nest collectors harvest swiftlet nests for birds nest soup. An Important Bird Area. Ecoregion 102.

Padas Gorge, Sabah, Malaysia. A whitewater rafting area. Ecoregion 102.

Pasoso Island, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. An Important Bird Area that harbors the grey imperial pigeon and yellow-crested cockatoo. Ecoregion 123.

Peradyan Forest Reserve, Brunei. Provides hiking in rainforest around two mountain peaks. Ecoregion 102.

Pulong Tao National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia. Funded by Japan and Switzerland, this biodiversity preserve in the Kelabit Highlands supports mixed dipterocarp forest and montane forest. Notable plants are a gymnosperm timber species, orchids, pitcher plants, gingers, and rhododendrons. An Important Bird Area. Ecoregion 103.

Rasa Island, Palawan, Philippines. Home of the endangered Philippine cockatoo and other endangered wildlife. Ecoregion 143.

Sabah Agricultural Park, Sabah, Malaysia. An orchid farm, along with tropical fruit. Ecoregion 102.

Sandakan Rainforest Park (Kebun Cima Forest Reserve), Sabah, Malaysia. The site of early botanical exploration includes 110 type speciments of plants, including the Nepenthes pitcher plants. Ecoregion 102.

Sangalaki Islands Marine Wildlife Reserve and Derawan Islands, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. A coral archipelago hosting sea turtles. A brackish lake on Kakaban Island is known for stingless jellyfish. Terrestrial ecoregion 102 and marine ecoregion 126.

Sangkulirang, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. An area of karst mountains and caves with subalpine birds. An Important Bird Area. Ecoregion 102.

Sebuku Sembakung National Park, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Mangrove forests, peat forest, forested limestone hills hosting elephants and orangutan. An Important Bird Area. Ecoregions 102, 104, 161, and 1405.

Sepilok Orangutan Rehabilitation Center and Kabili rainforest reserve, Sabah, Malaysia. Home to the primates and an Important Bird Area for oriental anhinga. Also includes the Rainforest Discovery Centre.

Seria Coast, Brunei. An Important Bird Area for crestless fireback and lesser adjutant. Ecoregion 104.

Sibutu and Tumindao Islands, Tawi-Tawi Province, Philippines. An Important Bird Area supporting Sulu archipelago endemics. Ecoregion 156.

Similajau National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia. Coastal preserve of mangroves and dipterocarp forest. Beach areas are known for dolphin viewing. An Important Bird Area. Terrestrial ecoregions 102 and 1405; marine ecoregion 117.

Siminul Island, Tawi-Tawi Province, Philippines. An Important Bird Area with Philippine cockatoo and blue-winged racquet tail. Ecoregion 156.

Sipidan Island, Sabah, Malaysia. Known for wall diving and called the world’s best by Jacques Cousteau. An underwater drop-off falls 2,800 feet. On land, the islands are an Important Bird Area for small island pigeons and frigatebirds. Ecoregion 102.

Sukao-Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary, Sabah, Malaysia. A sustainable development area on the lower Kinabatangan River in Sabah, which includes the Gomantong Caves, noted for one million swiftlets. A forested floodplain that hosts 10 primates and 250 bird species. An Important Bird Area, noted for Storm’s stork and hornbills. Mammals are primates, elephants, and rhinos. Ecoregion 102.

Tabin Wildlife Reserve, Sabah, Malaysia. Virgin lowland dipterocarp forest and mud volcanoes; an Important Bird Area. Mammals are orangutans and other primates, elephants, rhinoceros, and buffalo. Ecoregion 102.

Tabon Caves, Palawan, Philippines. Over 200 caves and rockshelters, providing a continuous record of 50,000 years of human occupation, including human remains, burial jars,a nd jade ornaments. Managed by National Museum of the Philippines. Ecoregion 143.

Tasek Merimbun, Brunei. A heritage park and Important Bird Area. Ecoregion 102.

Tawau Hills National Park, Sabah, Malaysia. Noted for waterfalls, hot springs, and a volcanic landscape. Bombalai, Borneo’s only active volcano, is found here. An Important Bird Area. Ecoregions 102 and 103.

Tawi-Tawi Island, Tawi-Tawi Province, Philippines. A largely undeveloped island with some primary forest on a central ridge, harbors endemic birds of the Sulu Archipelago, including Sulu bleeding-heart, tawitawi brown dove, and blue-winged racquet-tail. An Important Bird Area. Ecoregion 156.

Tempasuk Plains, Sabah, Malaysia. A freshwater wetland and Important Bird Area that includes the Kota Belud Bird Sanctuary. Ecoregion 1405.

Tiga Marine Park, Sabah, Malaysia. Site of the first Survivor series; nearby Snake Island is a breeding ground for sea snakes. Ecoregion 102 and marine ecoregion 126.

Trus Madi Range, Sabah, Malaysia. The second largest mountain on Borneo is an Important Bird area for endemic birds; part of the northern highlands of Sabah with Mount Kinabalu and the Crocker Range. Ecoregion 1001.

Tun Sakaran Marine Park, Sabah, Malaysia. Eight volcanic islands with fringing coral reefs in Darvel Bay are the subject of a cooperative conservation project with the Marine Conservation Society and the UK government. Ecoregion 1002 and marine ecoregion 126.

Tunku Abdul Rahman National Park, Sabah, Malaysia. Five islands off of Kota Kinabalu offer beaches and snorkeling. Ecoregion 102 and marine ecoregion 126.

Turtle Islands Heritage Protected Area, Sabah, Malaysia and Tawi-Tawi, Philippines. A transboundary protected area for green and hawksbill sea turtles. Terrestrial ecoregion 102 and marine ecoregion 126.

Ulu Barito, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. An Important Bird Area on the slopes of Muller Mountains. Ecoregion 103.

Ulu Telen, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. An Important Bird Area noted for mountain barbet, Hose’s broadbill, and Bornean whistler. Ecoregions 102 and 103.

Ulu Temburong National Park, Brunei. Noted for its extensive canopy walkway. An important bird area. Ecoregion 102.

Ursula Island Game Refuge and Bird Sanctuary, Palawan, Philippines. Set aside to protect imperial pigeons and rare birds, contains old growth lowland forest. Native birds are being affected by possibly non-native predatory snakes. An Important Bird Area. Ecoregion 143.

Usun Apau Plateau, Sarawak, Malaysia. An Important Bird Area for wattled pheasant. Ecoregions 102 and 103.

Mount Victoria, Palawan, Philippines. Undisturbed lowland and montane forests in the Victoria and Anepahan Ranges. Mount Victoria is noted for the world’s largest species of pitcher plant, Nepenthes attenboroughii. Ecoregion 143.

Wasan, Brunei. An Important Bird Area. Ecoregions 102 and 104.

XI. References

Abell, Robin and 27 others. 2008. Freshwater Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Biogeographic Units for Freshwater Biodiversity Conservation. Bioscience 58:403-414.

Baker, Nick. Andulau Peat Swamp Forest. http://www.ecologyasia.com/html-loc/andulau.htm (accessed 11/7/10).

Emma Beare, ed. 2006. 501 Must-Visit Natural Wonders. Bounty Books.

BirdLife International. 2010. BirdLife’s Online World Bird Database. Accessed 29/11/2010 at www.birdlife.org

Borneo Tour Giant. Information on national parks. www.borneotourgiant.com (accessed 11/7/10).

Conservation International. 2009. Mount Mantalingahan Protected Landscape Established. www.conservation.org/sites/gcf/fmg/articles/Pages/mount-mantalingahan.aspx (accessed 11/13/10).

Garbutt, Nick. 2006. Wild Borneo. MIT Press.

Ildos, Angela S. and Bardelli, Giorgio G. 2001. Great National Parks of the World. AAA Publishing. (Danum Valley).

Indonesian Forest Department. Information on national parks. www.dephut.go.id/

(accessed 11/7/10).

International Tropical Timber Organization, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia. Pulong Tao (Our Forest) web site. www.itto-pulongtau.com (accessed 11/7/10).

Normile, Dennis. 2010. Saving Forests to Save Biodiversity. Science 329:1278-1280.

Olson, David M., et al., 2001. Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Life on Earth. BioScience 51:933-938.

Palawan Council on Sustainable Development. www.pcsd.ph (accessed 11/13/10).

Pasyar Developmental Tourism. http://pasyarpalawan.tripod.com/pack.html (accessed 11/13/10). Iwahig firefly watching.

Pearce, K.G. 2006. The Flora of Pulong Tao National Park. ITTO Project PD224/03 Rev. 1(F): Transboundary Biodiversity Conservation—The Pulong Tao National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia. International Tropical Timber Organization, Sarawak Forest Department, and Sarawak Forestry Corporation. Available at www.itto-pulongtau.com

Philippines Coastal and Fisheries Information Center. www.oneocean.org/ambassadors/trackturtle/tihpa/index.html (accessed 11/13/10).

Riley, Laura and William. 2005. Nature’s Strongholds. Princeton University Press.

Robinson, Alastair S. et al. 2009. A spectacular new species of Nepenthes L. (Nepenthaceae) pitcher plant from central Palawan, Philippines. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 159:195-202.

Rowthorn, Chris, Muhammed Cohen, and China Williams. 2007. Borneo. Lonely Planet Publications.

Sabah Travel Guide. www.sabahtravelguide.com (accessed 11/7/10).

South East Asia Rainforest Research Programme. The Danum Valley Conservatoin Area. The Royal Society, UK. www.searrp.org/ (accessed 11/7/10).

Russell, Simon and Ann Delilkan. 1998. Into the Darkness. Earth Magazine, February 1998, pp. 72-77. (Mulu Mountain National Park).

Sandakan Rainforest Park. http://www.sandakanrfp.sabah.gov.my/ (Accessed 11/14/10).

Sarawak Forestry Department. Information on national parks. www.forestry.sarawak.gov.my (accessed 11/7/10).

Schultz, Patricia. 2003. 1,000 Places to See Before You Die. Workman Publishing. (Sipidan Island, Baram River, Mulu National Park).

Semporna Islands Project. www.sempornaislandsproject.com (accessed 11/14/10).

Smithsonian Institution, Global Volcanism Program. Volcanoes of the World. http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/find_regions.cfm (accessed 11/6/10).

Spalding, Mark D. and 14 others. 2007. Marine Ecoregions of the World: A Bioregionalization of Coastal and Shelf Areas. Bioscience 57:573-583.

Tabin Wildlife Resort. http://www.tabinwildlife.com.my/ (accessed 11/14/10).

Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park. www.tubbatahareef.org (accessed 11/7/10).

Wetlands International. Ramsar Sites Information Service. http://www.ramsar.wetlands.org/ (accessed 11/6/10).

World Heritage List. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list (accessed 11/6/10).

UNESCO-MAB Biosphere Reserve Directory. http://www.unesco.org/mabdb/br/brdir/directory/database.asp (accessed 11/6/10).

World Wide Fund for Nature-Malaysia. http://www.wwf.org.my/ (accessed 11/7/10) (Kinabatangun Wildlife Sanctuary).

Amery Oasis and Dome Argus

2010-10-01T22:42:00.002-04:00

Coldest place on Earth, mountains buried in ice, and river gorges made by vanished rivers

I. Map Boundaries: 70 to 80 degrees South, 60 to 90 degrees East

II. Country: Antarctic Treaty Secretariat (Station operated by China at Dome Argus)

III. Overview

Amery Ice Shelf and Lambert Glacier occupy a deep rift valley, one of the most prominent bays or indentations in the solid wall of icy land and mountains that is East Antarctica. Lambert is the largest valley glacier in the world. Below the ice of the Amery Ice Shelf, a marine community thrives underneath 700 m of ice and over 1200 m of sea water. Drilling during 2005 into the ice shelf by the Census of Antarctic Marine Life indicates that sponges, fan worms, urchins, and sea snails are abundant.

To the west of the Amery Ice Shelf, the Prince Charles Mountains rise. Approximately 500 million years ago, the Prince Charles Mountains were joined with the western Ghats of India as part of one mountain range. The Amery Oasis, located just west of Amery Shelf, is an ice-free area with a river gorge from a now-vanished river. Coal seams contain fossilized tree remains.

East of Lambert Glacier is the Mawson Escarpment, an ice-free range, and further to the east are the Grove Mountains, which also contain nunatuks extending above the ice. More than 500 miles to the south is another buried mountain range, Gamburtsev. Topography of the Gamburtsev Mountains is similar to that of the European Alps. Dome Argus, on the ice at 13,000 feet, is above the Gamburtsevs and is also where the coldest recorded temperatures have been recorded, at minus 82.5 degrees C.

IV. Terrestrial Ecoregions

AN 1102, Maudlandia Antarctic Desert. Consists of the ice-free coastal fringes. Lichens and moss cushions grow on soil, with some algae on snow. Mean monthly temperatures exceed freezing for a month or less in the summer.

V. Marine Ecoregions

Southern Ocean Realm, Continental High Antarctic Province

224. East Antarctic Wilkes Land

VI. Points of Interest

Amery Oasis, Northern Prince Charles Mountains. An ice-free area west of the Amery Ice Shelf. Although frozen, Beaver Lake exhibits tidal fluctuations. To the west is Radok Lake, which is of unknown depth and drains into Beaver Lake via Pagradroma Gorge. The steep-walled gorge was produced by a now-vanished river. The Bainmedart Coal Measures consist of 110 seams of bituminous coal deposited at the Paleozoic-Mesozoic periods. The coal was deposited within alluvial settings dominated by north-flowing rivers. The presence of upright fossilized stumps indicates the coal was from local plants. There is extensive leaf fossil preservation of Glossopteris, a deciduous seed-bearing tree that may have grown in conditions similar to cypress today. Terrestrial ecoregion AN1102 and Marine Ecoregion 224.

Dome Argus. Located just to the south of the map area at an elevation of 13,000 feet, this is believed to be the coldest spot in Antarctica. The coldest ever was 82.5 degrees C below zero. China’s Kunlun Station is located nearby.

Gamburtsev Mountains. A two-mile deep layer of glacial ice covers mountains the size of the European Alps. The rugged topography of the mountain range under the ice suggests that the ice sheet formed quickly. At the bottom of the ice is liquid water. A map of the mountain range was completed during the 2008-2009 summer season.

Mount Harding and Grove Mountains, American Highland. Antarctic Specially Protected Area No. 168. Mount Harding extends 200 m above the ice, and the ice-free areas allow study of East Antarctic Ice Sheet fluctuations. Features of the preserve are cold desert soil, pools of water, and a crescent-shaped ridge of nunatuks. On the west side is a large blue-ice area, called Kunming Lake, cone-shaped pyramids, and wind-eroded rock formations.

VII. References

Antarctic Treaty Secretariat. Antarctic Protected Areas Database. http://www.ats.aq/devPH/apa/ep_protected_search.aspx?type=2&lang=e (Accessed March 7, 2010).

Antarctic Treaty Secretariat. Management Plan for Antarctic Specially Protected Area No. 168, Mount Harding, Grove Mountains, East Antarctica. www.ats.aq/documents/recatt/Att386_e.pdf (accessed September 25, 2010).

Antarctica’s Gamburtsev Province Project web page. www.ldeo.columbia.edu/res/pi/gambit/index.htm (accessed September 25, 2010).

Australian Antarctic Division. The Amery Oasis, Northern Prince Charles Mountains. www.antarctica.gov.au/living-and-working/stations/mawson/prince-charles-mountains/amery/

(accessed September 25, 2010).

Consortium for Ocean Leadership. Census of Marine Life Discoveries. Amery Ice Shelf. www.coml.org (accessed 5/15/10)

Kenrick, Paul and Paul Davis. 2004. Fossil Plants. Smithsonian Books, Washington, DC.

Olson, David M., et al., 2001. Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Life on Earth. BioScience 51:933-938. Ecoregion map at http://www.nationgeographic.com/wildworld/terrestrial.html

Prince Charles Mountains, Lambert Glacier and Amery Ice Shelf North. 2004. Scale 1:2,000,000. Map Catalog 13112. Australian Antarctic Data Centre. http://data.aad.gov.au/aadc/mapcat/ (Accessed September 25, 2010).

Prince Charles Mountains, Lambert Glacier, and Amery Ice Shelf South. 2004. Scale 1:2,000,000. Map Catalog 13113. Australian Antarctic Data Centre. http://data.aad.gov.au/aadc/mapcat/ (Accessed September 25, 2010).

Siegert, Martin J. et al. 2005. A revised inventory of Antarctic subglacial lakes. Antarctic Science 17:453-460.

Spalding, Mark D. and 14 others. 2007. Marine Ecoregions of the World: A Bioregionalization of Coastal and Shelf Areas. BioScience 57:573-583.

Wilson, C.J.L. Antarctic Tectonics Website. School of Earth Sciences, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. http://web.earthsci.unimelb.edu.au/antarctica

(accessed September 25, 2010).